frontiers Frontiers in Psychology
TYPE Brief Research Report
PUBLISHED 2 5 J u l y 2 0 2 2
DOI 1 0 . 3 3 8 9 / f p s y g . 2 0 2 2 . 9 6 1 3 7 3
(J) Check for updates
OPEN ACCESS
EDITED BY
Lenka Sokolová,
Institute o f Applied Psychology,
Faculty o f Social a n d E c o n o m i c Sciences,
C o m e n i u s University, Slovakia
REVIEWED BY
Viktoriia G o r b u n o v a ,
University o f L u x e m b o u r g ,
L u x e m b o u r g
Gabriela S e b o k o v a ,
C o n s t a n t i n e t h e P h i l o s o p h e r University,
Slovakia
•CORRESPONDENCE
Petr M a c e k
m a c e k @ f s s . m u n i . c z
SPECIALTY SECTION
This article w a s s u b m i t t e d t o
H e a l t h P s y c h o l o g y ,
a s e c t i o n o f t h e j o u r n a l
Frontiers i n P s y c h o l o g y
RECEIVED 0 4 J u n e 2 0 2 2
ACCEPTED 2 9 J u n e 2 0 2 2
PUBLISHED 2 5 J u l y 2 0 2 2
CITATION
M a c e k P Ježek S a n d Lacinová L (2022)
Stable o r c h a n g i n g w e l l - b e i n g ? Daily
hassles a n d life satisfaction o f C z e c h
a d o l e s c e n t s o v e r t h e last t h r e e decades.
Front Psychol. 13:961373.
doi: 1 0 . 3 3 8 9 / f p s y g . 2 0 2 2 . 9 6 1 3 7 3
COPYRIGHT
© 2 0 2 2 M a c e k , Ježek a n d Lacinová. T h i s is
an o p e n - a c c e s s article d i s t r i b u t e d u n d e r
t h e t e r m s o f t h e C r e a t i v e C o m m o n s
A t t r i b u t i o n License ( C C BY). T h e use,
d i s t r i b u t i o n o r r e p r o d u c t i o n i n o t h e r
f o r u m s is p e r m i t t e d , p r o v i d e d t h e o r i g i n a l
author(s) a n d t h e c o p y r i g h t o w n e r ( s ) a r e
credited a n d t h a t t h e o r i g i n a l p u b l i c a t i o n i n
this j o u r n a l is cited, i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h
a c c e p t e d a c a d e m i c practice. N o use,
d i s t r i b u t i o n o r r e p r o d u c t i o n is p e r m i t t e d
w h i c h d o e s n o t c o m p l y w i t h t h e s e t e r m s .
Stable or changing well-being?
Daily hassles and life satisfaction
of Czech adolescents over the
last three decades
Petr Macek*, Stanislav Ježek and Lenka Lacinová
Institute f o r Research o n C h i l d r e n , Y o u t h , a n d Family, Faculty o f Social Studies, M a s a r y k University,
B r n o , C z e c h i a
W h i l e t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e sociopolitical a n d e c o n o m i c situation affects
adolescents' w e l l - b e i n g , e n c o m p a s s i n g life satisfaction a n d a positive sense o f
self, is plausible, f e w studies have c o n f i r m e d s u c h m a c r o s o c i a l influences. T h e
case o f t h e C z e c h Republic offers a n e x a m p l e o f a society transitioning f r o m
totalitarian g o v e r n m e n t ( f r o m 1989) t o w e s t e r n d e m o c r a c y . O u r study provides
statistical description o f C z e c h adolescents' w e l l - b e i n g o v e r t h e past 3 0 years
in association w i t h t h e subjective p e r c e p t i o n o f everyday p r o b l e m s . T h e s e daily
hassles represent experiences a n d c o n d i t i o n s o f daily living t h a t have b e e n
appraised a s salient a n d h a r m f u l o r t h r e a t e n i n g t o adolescents' w e l l - b e i n g .
W e analyzed f o u r samples o f adolescents a g e d 1 4 - 1 7 y e a r s surveyed at f o u r t i m e
points o v e r t h e last t h r e e d e c a d e s - 1 9 9 2 , 2 0 0 1 , 2 0 1 1 , a n d 2019, t o t a l N = 4 , 0 0 5
(1992: 255, 2 0 0 1 : 3 0 6 , 2 0 1 1 : 363, 2 0 1 9 : 3 0 8 1 ; 5 4 . 6 % females). T h e results s h o w
that life satisfaction, s e l f - e s t e e m , a n d s e l f - r e p o r t e d daily hassles c h a n g e d o n l y
marginally f r o m 1 9 9 2 t o 2 0 1 9 w i t h small differences related t o t h e p o s t - r e v o l u t i o n
1992 c o h o r t . Adolescents r e p o r t e d increasing p r o b l e m s i n s c h o o l , relationships
w i t h parents, sports, a n d leisure t i m e o v e r t h e study period. A m o d e l linking daily
hassles a n d s e l f - e s t e e m t o life satisfaction across f o u r c o h o r t s s h o w e d t h a t daily
hassles strongly predicted life satisfaction except in t h e p o s t - r e v o l u t i o n c o h o r t o f
1992 w h e n life satisfaction w a s also t h e l o w e s t . T h e effect w a s slightly higher in
females. Across t h e c o h o r t s , g e n d e r differences i n life satisfaction c h a n g e d f r o m
males being m o r e satisfied i n 1 9 9 2 t o f e m a l e s being m o r e satisfaction i n 2019.
Limitations s t e m m i n g f r o m s a m p l i n g differences across c o h o r t s are discussed.
KEYWORDS
well-being, daily hassles, life satisfaction, self-esteem, adolescence, social change
I n t r o d u c t i o n
I n r e c e n t d e c a d e s , a g r o w i n g b o d y o f r e s e a r c h h a s f o c u s e d o n a d o l e s c e n t w e l l - b e i n g i n
n o n - c l i n i c a l a d o l e s c e n t p o p u l a t i o n s ( P o l l a r d a n d L e e , 2 0 0 3 ; B e n - A r i e h e t a l . , 2 0 1 4 ) .
R e s e a r c h t h a t f o c u s e s p r i m a r i l y o n p h y s i c a l a n d m e n t a l h e a l t h o f t e n r e l i e s o n t h e W H O
d e f i n i t i o n o f w e l l - b e i n g , w h i c h e m p h a s i z e s h o w p e o p l e d e v e l o p t h e i r o w n p o t e n t i a l , t h e i r
r e l a t i o n s h i p s , a n d t h e i r a b i l i t y t o c o p e w i t h e v e r y d a y s t r e s s ( T h e W o r l d H e a l t h O r g a n i s a t i o n ,
2 0 1 3 ) . I n o u r r e s e a r c h , w e f o c u s o n l y o n s u b j e c t i v e w e l l - b e i n g ( S W B ) , w h i c h r e f e r s t o a n
i n d i v i d u a l s a s s e s s m e n t o f l i f e ( M o k s n e s a n d E s p n e s , 2 0 1 3 ) .
F r o n t i e r s i n P s y c h o l o g y 0 1 f r o n t i e r s i n . o r g
Macek et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.961373
W i d e l y a c c e p t e d t h e o r e t i c a l c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n o f S W B
( D i e n e r , 1 9 8 4 , 2 0 1 3 ) c o m p r i s e s t h r e e r e l a t i v e l y i n d e p e n d e n t
c o m p o n e n t s : p e r c e i v e d l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n ( c o g n i t i v e c o m p o n e n t ) ,
p o s i t i v e e x p e r i e n c e s , a n d n e g a t i v e e x p e r i e n c e s ( a f f e c t i v e
c o m p o n e n t ) . I f m o r e t r a d i t i o n a l a p p r o a c h e s e m p h a s i z e t h e
p r e s e n c e o r a b s e n c e o f n e g a t i v e f e e l i n g s a n d e x p e r i e n c e d
p r o b l e m s , t h e n c o n t e m p o r a r y p o s i t i v e p s y c h o l o g y p o s i t s t h a t
S W B i s b a s e d m o r e o n p o s i t i v e q u a l i t y o f l i f e i n d i c a t o r s s u c h as
l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n , h a p p i n e s s , s e l f - e s t e e m , a n d e x p e r i e n c i n g
p o s i t i v e e m o t i o n s .
F r o m a d e v e l o p m e n t a l p o i n t o f v i e w , t h e c o n t e n t o f S W B is
n o t c h a n g i n g m u c h , b u t t h e r a n g e o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l p h e n o m e n a
i n f l u e n c i n g S W B e x p a n d s w i t h age. T h e s e i n c l u d e i n t e r n a l a n d
e x t e r n a l f a c t o r s , i n c l u d i n g m a c r o s o c i a l d e t e r m i n a n t s ( s o c i a l
a d a p t a t i o n , c u l t u r a l , s o c i a l , a n d p o l i t i c a l f a c t o r i e s ) . I t a l s o a p p e a r s
t h a t t h e s t r e n g t h o f s o m e o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l p e r s o n a l a n d m i c r o s
o c i a l c o m p o n e n t s o r i n d i c a t o r s o f S B W i s c h a n g i n g a l o n g w i t h
c h a n g i n g s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s ( D i e n e r , 2 0 1 3 ) . H o w e v e r , c a p t u r i n g t h e
d i r e c t e f f e c t o f m a c r o s o c i a l c h a n g e s i s c o m p l i c a t e d . O b j e c t i v e
i n d i c a t o r s o f q u a l i t y o f l i f e , s u c h as i m p r o v e d h e a l t h c a r e a n d m o r e
w o r k o r s t u d y o p p o r t u n i t i e s , d o n o t n e c e s s a r i l y l e a d t o h i g h e r
S W B . P e o p l e m a y f i n d i t d i f f i c u l t t o a d a p t t o c h a n g i n g l i f e
c i r c u m s t a n c e s , a n d h i g h e r l i v i n g s t a n d a r d s m a y a l s o i n c r e a s e
p e r s o n a l a s p i r a t i o n s , w i t h n e w o p p o r t u n i t i e s b r i n g i n g n e w
u n c e r t a i n t i e s ( D i e n e r e t a l . , 2 0 0 6 ) . M o r e o v e r , i n t h e a d o l e s c e n t
p o p u l a t i o n , t h e i n t e r p l a y o f a l l t h e f a c t o r s m a y b e q u i t e d i f f e r e n t
f r o m a d u l t p o p u l a t i o n s ( E c c l e s e t a l . , 2 0 0 8 ) .
T h e r e f o r e , w h e n s t u d y i n g t h e e f f e c t s o f s o c i a l c h a n g e o n
a d o l e s c e n t s ' S W B , w e n e e d t o c o n s i d e r b o t h s h o r t - t e r m a n d l o n g t
e r m e f f e c t s . C o h o r t c o m p a r i s o n s o f s a m p l e s g a t h e r e d a t d i f f e r e n t
h i s t o r i c a l p o i n t s a r e s u i t a b l e d e s i g n s t o a c h i e v e t h i s a i m
( B r o n f e n b r e n n e r , 1 9 7 9 ; C r o c k e t t a n d S i l b e r e i s e n , 1 9 9 9 ; D u e e t a l . ,
2 0 1 9 ) . I n t h e p r e s e n t c o h o r t - c o m p a r i s o n s t u d y , w e f o c u s e d o n t h e
e x t e n t t o w h i c h p e r s o n a l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ( s e l f - e s t e e m ) , p r o x i m a l
s i t u a t i o n a l i n f l u e n c e s ( d a i l y h a s s l e s ) , a n d c h a n g e s i n t h e
m a c r o s o c i a l e n v i r o n m e n t d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d o f t h r e e d e c a d e s
( t r a c k i n g f o u r c o h o r t s o f a d o l e s c e n t s a t i n t e r v a l s o f 8 - 9 y e a r s )
i n f l u e n c e d a d o l e s c e n t s ' l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n .
Life satisfaction
L i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n ( L S ) r e p r e s e n t s t h e c o g n i t i v e c o m p o n e n t , a
c o n s c i o u s a n d g l o b a l e v a l u a t i o n o f o n e ' s o w n l i f e , w h i c h c a n
b e e v a l u a t e d b a s e d o n o n e ' s s t a n d a r d s ( S h i n a n d J o h n s o n , 1 9 7 8 ;
P a v o t a n d D i e n e r , 1 9 9 3 ) . A s a k e y i n d i c a t o r o f S W B , L S l i f e
s a t i s f a c t i o n f o c u s e s o n i d e n t i f y i n g a n d u s i n g s t r e n g t h s as b u f f e r s
a g a i n s t t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f p s y c h o p a t h o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m s
( V e e n h o v e n , 1 9 8 4 ; P r o c t o r e t a l . , 2 0 0 9 ) .
S i m i l a r t o a d u l t s , l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n a p p e a r s t o b e r e l a t i v e l y s t a b l e
as m o s t a d o l e s c e n t s g e n e r a l l y r e p o r t a p o s i t i v e a t t i t u d e t o w a r d l i f e
( G i l m a n a n d H u e b n e r , 2 0 0 3 ; M o k s n e s a n d E s p n e s , 2 0 1 3 ; O p s h a u g h ,
2 0 1 3 ) . E u r o - A m e r i c a n s t u d i e s h a v e f o u n d l i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n
m a l e s a n d f e m a l e s . W h e n s m a l l g e n d e r d i f f e r e n c e s w e r e f o u n d , b o y s
u s u a l l y r e p o r t e d h i g h e r L S ( G i l m a n a n d H u e b n e r , 2 0 0 3 ) . C u l t u r a l l y ,
t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n c o u n t r i e s a r e n o t s u b s t a n t i a l , o n l y h i g h
i n d i v i d u a l i s m ( v s . c o l l e c t i v i s m ) c o n s i s t e n t l y p r e d i c t e d d i f f e r e n c e s
i n L S b e t w e e n n a t i o n s w h e n c o n t r o l l i n g f o r o t h e r v a r i a b l e s ( D i e n e r
e t a l . , 1 9 9 5 ) . B a s e d o n findings f r o m t h e e a r l y 1 9 9 0 s , C z e c h
a d o l e s c e n t s d i d n o t d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t i y i n L S f r o m a d o l e s c e n t s a c r o s s
E u r o p e ( M a c e k , 1 9 9 9 ) . N e v e r t h e l e s s , s o m e s t u d i e s h a v e s h o w n t h a t
a d o l e s c e n t s a n d a d u l t s i n E a s t e r n E u r o p e a n c o u n t r i e s s c o r e d
s l i g h t l y l o w e r o n L S c o m p a r e d t o W e s t e r n E u r o p e a n s ( D e l h e y , 2 0 0 4 ) .
Daily hassles
D a i l y h a s s l e s ( D H s ) r e p r e s e n t " e x p e r i e n c e s a n d c o n d i t i o n s o f
d a i l y l i v i n g t h a t h a v e b e e n a p p r a i s e d as s a l i e n t a n d h a r m f u l o r
t h r e a t e n i n g t o t h e e n d o r s e r ' s w e l l - b e i n g " ( L a z a r u s , 1 9 8 6 , p . 4 0 ) .
T h e s e r e c u r r i n g e v e n t s , b e i n g a p a r t o f t h e m i c r o - s o c i a l
e n v i r o n m e n t o f a d o l e s c e n t s ' l i v e s , c o n t r i b u t e t o a d o l e s c e n t s '
n e g a t i v e f e e l i n g s a n d i r r i t a b i l i t y ( D e L o n g i s e t a l . , 1 9 8 2 ; K a n n e r
e t a l . , 1 9 8 7 ) . A s c h r o n i c s t r e s s o r s , t h e y a f f e c t S W B a n d m e n t a l
h e a l t h ( A s s e l m a n n e t a l . , 2 0 1 7 ) . D H s h a v e a c u m u l a t i v e e f f e c t
( K a n n e r e t a l . , 1 9 8 7 ) ; w h e n t h e y a f f e c t m u l t i p l e d o m a i n s o f
a d o l e s c e n t s ' l i v e s w i t h h i g h f r e q u e n c y , s t r e s s l e v e l s i n c r e a s e
s i g n i f i c a n t i y . D i f f i c u l t i e s i n s p e c i f i c d o m a i n s o f l i f e ( s c h o o l , f a m i l y ,
a n d p e e r s ) m a y b e o f v a r y i n g i m p o r t a n c e t o a d o l e s c e n t s ( G e l h a a r
e t a l . , 2 0 0 7 ; B o o t h a n d A n t h o n y , 2 0 1 5 ; M i z e a n d K l i e w e r , 2 0 1 7 ) .
M o s t f r e q u e n t l y r e p o r t e d p r o b l e m s a n d s t r e s s o r s c o m e f r o m
t h e s c h o o l c o n t e x t , f a m i l y r e l a t i o n s h i p s , p r o b l e m s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
r i s k b e h a v i o r , h e a l t h p r o b l e m s , a n d p r o b l e m s w i t h r o m a n t i c
p a r t n e r s . R e c e n t l y , p r o b l e m s w i t h finances, l e i s u r e t i m e , p r i v a c y
a n d o n l i n e a c t i v i t i e s , a n d p e r s o n a l p s y c h o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m s h a v e
a l s o b e c o m e i n c r e a s i n g l y c o m m o n ( C h e n g a n d L i , 2 0 1 0 ; M i z e a n d
K l i e w e r , 2 0 1 7 ; Z o r b a z e t a l . , 2 0 2 0 ) .
S e v e r a l s t u d i e s h a v e r e p o r t e d t h e s p e c i f i c e f f e c t o f D H s o n
S W B a n d e s p e c i a l l y o n l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n ( H u e b n e r , 1 9 9 1 ; P r o c t o r
et a l . , 2 0 0 9 ; C h e n g a n d L i , 2 0 1 0 ; U d a y a r e t a l . , 2 0 2 1 ) . F o r e x a m p l e ,
m i n o r d a i l y e v e n t s a n d e v e r y d a y d i f f i c u l t i e s (e.g., a r g u m e n t s w i t h
f r i e n d s , p o o r e x a m p e r f o r m a n c e , a n d e n j o y m e n t o f a h o b b y ) h a v e
b e e n s h o w n t o c o n t r i b u t e t o u n i q u e v a r i a n c e o v e r a n d a b o v e
m a j o r s t r e s s f u l l i f e e v e n t s ( G i l m a n a n d H u e b n e r , 2 0 0 3 ; P r o c t o r
e t a l . , 2 0 0 9 ) .
Self-esteem
S e l f - e s t e e m as a g l o b a l s e l f - e v a l u a t i o n fits w e l l t o g e t h e r w i t h
l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f a d o l e s c e n t s ' S B W ( D i e n e r ,
1 9 8 4 ; G r o b e t a l . , 1 9 9 6 ; H a r t e r , 2 0 0 6 ; M o k s n e s a n d E s p n e s ,
2 0 1 3 ) . D i e n e r a n d D i e n e r ( 2 0 0 9 ) f o u n d t h a t s e l f - e s t e e m i s a
p o w e r f u l p r e d i c t o r o f l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y i n i n d i v i d u a l i s t
c u l t u r e s ( K w a n e t a l . , 1 9 9 7 ) . S t u d i e s h a v e s h o w n t h a t i n
a d u l t h o o d , s e l f - e s t e e m i s a r e l a t i v e l y s t a b l e p e r s o n a l i t y
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t h a t , i n r e l a t i o n t o l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n , c a n e x p l a i n
b e t w e e n - p e r s o n v a r i a t i o n ( A n u s i c a n d S c h i m m a c k , 2 0 1 6 ) .
Frontiers in Psychology 0 2 frontiersin.org
Macek et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.961373
H o w e v e r , i n e a r l y a n d m i d d l e a d o l e s c e n c e , s e l f - e s t e e m i s s t i l l
f o r m i n g a n d i s m o r e d e p e n d e n t o n s i t u a t i o n a l i n f l u e n c e s a n d
i n t e r p e r s o n a l e v a l u a t i o n s ( K u s t e r a n d O r t h , 2 0 1 3 ; S a n c h e z Q
u e i j a e t a l . , 2 0 1 7 ) .
T h e a s s o c i a t i o n b e t w e e n s e l f - e s t e e m a n d d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f
p e r s o n a l d i f f i c u l t i e s h a s b e e n d o c u m e n t e d t h e o r e t i c a l l y a n d
e m p i r i c a l l y . A s o c i a l - c o g n i t i v e e x p l a n a t i o n o f d e p r e s s i o n ( O a t l e y
a n d B o l t o n , 1 9 8 5 ; H i g g i n s , 1 9 8 7 ; K e r n i s e t a l . , 1 9 9 8 ) a s s u m e s t h a t
d e p r i v i n g o n e s s e l f - d e f i n i n g r o l e a n d d e f l a t i n g s e l f - e s t e e m a r e
r e l a t e d t o h o w o n e p e r c e i v e s a n d h a n d l e s d i f f i c u l t i e s a n d p r o b l e m
s i t u a t i o n s ( C h e n g a n d L a m , 1 9 9 7 ; M a n n e t a l . , 2 0 0 4 ) . S e l f - e s t e e m
is u s u a l l y p o s i t i v e l y c o r r e l a t e d w i t h l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n ( M o k s n e s a n d
E s p n e s , 2 0 1 3 ) , b u t t h e s p e c i f i c r o l e o f D H s i n t h i s a s s o c i a t i o n is
u n c l e a r . T h e r e f o r e , w e p r o p o s e a m o d e l i n o u r s t u d y w h e r e
w e c o n s i d e r s e l f - e s t e e m a n d d a i l y h a s s l e s as p r e d i c t o r s o f p e r c e i v e d
l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n .
Adolescent life in t h e changing C z e c h
society
W e c o m p a r e d C z e c h a d o l e s c e n t s f r o m d i f f e r e n t t i m e s , s o a
b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e s o c i a l c h a n g e s i n t h i s p e r i o d i s n e c e s s a r y
f o r a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e m a c r o s o c i a l i n f l u e n c e s o n t h e
e v e r y d a y l i f e o f a d o l e s c e n t s .
T h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n t o a d e m o c r a t i c p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m a f t e r t h e
f a l l o f t h e c o m m u n i s t r e g i m e a t t h e e n d o f 1 9 8 9 b r o u g h t m a n y
e c o n o m i c a n d s o c i a l c h a n g e s i n C z e c h s o c i e t y . A d o l e s c e n t s a n d
t h e i r p a r e n t s w e r e e x p e r i e n c i n g a k i n d o f " s o c i a l m o r a t o r i u m . "
T h e y r e a s s e s s e d t h e i r l i v e s a n d s o u g h t a n e w p e r s o n a l p e r s p e c t i v e ,
s e e i n g t h e i r f u t u r e o p t i m i s t i c a l l y b u t r a t h e r v a g u e l y . I n t h e l a t e
1 9 9 0 s , t h e s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n c h a n g e d d r a m a t i c a l l y , as e c o n o m i c ,
p o l i t i c a l a n d l e g i s l a t i v e p r o b l e m s l e d t o m a n y C z e c h s e x p e r i e n c i n g
d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t w i t h t h e s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n , a n d t h e i r o p t i m i s m
d e c r e a s e d c o n s i d e r a b l y ( M a c e k a n d M a r k o v a , 2 0 0 4 ; L i n e k , 2 0 1 0 ) .
T h e 2 0 0 0 s c o u l d b e m e t a p h o r i c a l l y d e s c r i b e d as " e n t e r i n g
a d u l t h o o d " o f t h e C z e c h s o c i e t y . U n r e a l i s t i c o p t i m i s m a n d n a i v e
c o n f i d e n c e i n t h e f u t u r e w e r e r e p l a c e d b y a m o r e r e a l i s t i c v i e w o f
t h e f u t u r e ( L i n e k , 2 0 1 0 ) . A d o l e s c e n t s r a i s e d i n a d e m o c r a t i c
s o c i e t y t a k e i n d i v i d u a l f r e e d o m f o r g r a n t e d ; a n d t h e i r p o s s i b i l i t i e s
f o r s e l f - d e v e l o p m e n t w e r e g r e a t l y e x p a n d e d . H o w e v e r , t h e
p r e s s u r e f o r i n d e p e n d e n t d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g a n d t h e a s s o c i a t e d
u n c e r t a i n t y h a v e a l s o i n c r e a s e d . T h e s e a d o l e s c e n t s a r e m o r e
i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c t h a n b e f o r e , r e c o g n i z i n g t h e v a l u e o f e d u c a t i o n ,
s u c c e s s , s o c i a l p r e s t i g e , l e i s u r e , a n d e n t e r t a i n m e n t . T h e y a r e v e r y
t o l e r a n t a n d l i b e r a l i n r e l a t i o n t o d r u g s a n d sex, l e s s d e p e n d e n t o n
p a r e n t s a n d t e a c h e r s ( M a c e k et a l . , 2 0 1 3 ) .
A l l t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s c a n a p p l y t o t h e l i f e o f a d o l e s c e n t s i n
t h e 2 0 1 0 s . A n e w e l e m e n t h a s b e e n t h e m a s s i v e e x p a n s i o n o f s o c i a l
n e t w o r k i n g , s t i l l m a i n l y t h r o u g h p e r s o n a l c o m p u t e r s , l a p t o p s , a n d
t a b l e t s . T h u s , l i f e o n s o c i a l n e t w o r k i n g s i t e s w a s s t i l l s e p a r a t e f r o m
o t h e r a c t i v i t i e s o f a d o l e s c e n t s ( S u b r a h m a n y a m a n d S m a h e l , 2 0 1 1 ) .
T h e g l o b a l i z a t i o n o f a d o l e s c e n t c u l t u r e a n d s o c i a l i z a t i o n t h r o u g h
m e d i a h a s p r o g r e s s e d q u i c k l y .
T h e l a s t c o h o r t , b o r n i n t h e n e w m i l l e n n i u m , g r e w u p w i t h
m o b i l e s m a r t p h o n e s b e c o m i n g t h e m a i n m e a n s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n
a n d t h e p l a t f o r m f o r a d o l e s c e n t s ' l o n g - t e r m a n d o f t e n p e r m a n e n t
p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n s o c i a l n e t w o r k s . T w e n g e ( 2 0 1 7 ) c a l l e d t h e m t h e
i G e n e r a t i o n o f a d o l e s c e n t s , f o r w h o m s o c i a l m e d i a a n d
c o m m u n i c a t i o n t h r o u g h t e x t a n d p i c t u r e m e s s a g i n g h a v e p a r t i a l l y
r e p l a c e d n o r m a l f a c e - t o - f a c e s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n s a n d o t h e r
a c t i v i t i e s . T h e y s p e n d l e s s t i m e w i t h p e e r s t h a n p r e v i o u s
g e n e r a t i o n s , a n d d e s p i t e s p e n d i n g m o r e t i m e a t h o m e , o f t e n i n t h e
p r e s e n c e o f p a r e n t s , t h e i r c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h p a r e n t s i s l i m i t e d .
I n t h e v i r t u a l s o c i a l w o r l d , t h e y f a c e u n r e a l i s t i c e x p e c t a t i o n s ,
a g g r e s s i v e n e s s , a n d i n a d e q u a t e b e n c h m a r k s f o r t h e i r s e l f a
s s e s s m e n t . T h i s m a y b e w h y t h e y a r e m o r e l i k e l y t o e x p e r i e n c e
a n x i e t y , d e p r e s s i v e s y m p t o m s , a n d l o n e l i n e s s . T h e y a r e v e r y
t o l e r a n t b u t i m p a t i e n t a n d i n d e c i s i v e ( T w e n g e , 2 0 1 7 ) . H o w e v e r , as
p r i o r r e s e a r c h s h o w e d , t h e e f f e c t s o f t e c h n o l o g y u s e a n d n e w
m o d e s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n o n a d o l e s c e n t s ' w e l l - b e i n g c a n b e b o t h
p o s i t i v e a n d n e g a t i v e b e c a u s e o f a c o m p l e x i n t e r p l a y o f d i f f e r e n t
f a c t o r s (Bedrošová e t a l . , 2 0 1 8 ; D e d k o v a e t a l . , 2 0 2 2 ) .
The present study
T h i s s t u d y o f f e r s a u n i q u e o p p o r t u n i t y t o a n a l y z e w e l l - b e i n g
d a t a f r o m f o u r c o h o r t s ( 1 9 9 2 , 2 0 0 1 , 2 0 1 1 , a n d 2 0 1 9 ) . T h e p r i m a r y
g o a l w a s t o d e s c r i b e t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s e l f - r e p o r t e d l i f e
s a t i s f a c t i o n a n d d a i l y h a s s l e s a c r o s s s a l i e n t i y d i f f e r e n t m a c r o s o c i a l
s i t u a t i o n s . B a s e d o n p r e v i o u s r e s e a r c h , w e a s s u m e d l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n
s h o u l d r e m a i n s t a b l e . T h e d a i l y h a s s l e s a r e m o r e l i k e l y t o
b e d i f f e r e n t n o w t h a n i n t h e p a s t b e c a u s e t h e y r e f l e c t t h e d i f f e r e n t
m a c r o s o c i a l c o n t e x t s .
T h e s e c o n d g o a l o f t h e s t u d y i s t o assess w h e t h e r s e l f - r e p o r t e d
d a i l y h a s s l e s a r e r e l a t e d t o s e l f - r e p o r t e d l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n a n d
w h e t h e r t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p d i f f e r s a c r o s s c o h o r t s . S i n c e s e l f - e s t e e m
a f f e c t s t h e a s s e s s m e n t o f l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n , w e a s s e s s e d t h i s
r e l a t i o n s h i p s e p a r a t e l y w h i l e c o n t r o l l i n g f o r s e l f - e s t e e m .
Methods
Participants and procedure
F o u r c o h o r t s o f C z e c h a d o l e s c e n t s w e r e s a m p l e d a b o u t 10
y e a r s a p a r t i n 1 9 9 2 , 2 0 0 1 , 2 0 1 1 , a n d 2 0 1 9 . A l l a r e q u o t a s a m p l e s
r e f l e c t i n g t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e C z e c h R e p u b l i c w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e
t y p e o f l o w e r a n d h i g h e r s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s a t t e n d e d ; w h o l e
c l a s s r o o m s w e r e s a m p l e d . T h e s a m p l e s c o v e r e d t w o g r a d e c o h o r t s ,
s p e c i f i c a l l y , g r a d e 8 s t u d e n t s a r o u n d age 1 4 ( a g e 1 3 , p = 4 . 3 % , 14,
p = 2 2 . 4 % , 1 5 , p = 2 2 . 4 % ) a n d g r a d e 10 s t u d e n t s a r o u n d age 1 6 (age
16, p = 2 7 . 4 % , 1 7 , p = 1 6 . 1 % , o v e r 17, p = 7 . 3 % ) .
T h e 1 9 9 2 s a m p l e w a s c o l l e c t e d i n t h e E u r o n e t P i l o t S t u d y
( A l s a k e r a n d F l a m m e r , 1 9 9 9 ; N = 2 5 7 , 4 4 % f e m a l e ) . T h e
p a r t i c i p a n t s d i r e c t i y e x p e r i e n c e d t h e s o c i a l i s t r e g i m e a n d t h e s t a r t
o f t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n 1 9 8 9 . T h e 2 0 0 1 a n d s u b s e q u e n t d a t a w e r e
Frontiers in Psychology 0 3 frontiersin.org
Macek et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.961373
c o l l e c t e d t o r e p l i c a t e t h e 1 9 9 2 s t u d y . P a r t i c i p a n t s i n t h e 2 0 0 1
s a m p l e { N = 3 1 0 , 5 1 % f e m a l e ) g r e w u p i n t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n
t u r m o i l f o l l o w i n g t h e 1 9 8 9 r e v o l u t i o n . T h e 2 0 1 1 s a m p l e ( N = 3 7 1 ,
4 7 % f e m a l e ) w a s c o m p u t e r - a d m i n i s t e r e d i n c l a s s r o o m s .
P a r t i c i p a n t s i n t h i s s a m p l e w e r e b o r n d u r i n g t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n
p e r i o d , g r e w u p i n a c o n s o l i d a t e d E U - m e m b e r c o u n t r y , a n d h a d
I n t e r n e t s e r v i c e s a s a p a r t o f t h e i r e v e r y d a y l i f e . T h e 2 0 1 9 s a m p l e
( N = 3 , 2 0 6 , 5 6 % f e m a l e ) w a s m o s t l y a d m i n i s t e r e d i n c l a s s r o o m s
u s i n g p e n - a n d - p a p e r f o r m a t ( 2 , 4 8 4 , 7 7 . 5 % ) , w h i l e s o m e w e r e
a d m i n i s t e r e d o n s c h o o l c o m p u t e r s ( 7 2 2 , 2 2 . 5 % ) . T h i s g e n e r a t i o n
g r e w u p i n a s o c i e t y i n c r e a s i n g l y i n f l u e n c e d b y o n l i n e m e d i a a n d
s o c i a l n e t w o r k s .
T h e t o t a l e f f e c t i v e s a m p l e s i z e w a s N = 4 , 0 0 5 ( n i 9 9 2 = 2 5 5 ,
«2ooi = 3 0 5 , «2on = 3 6 3 , a n d «2019 = 3 , 0 8 2 ) .
T h e i n f o r m e d c o n s e n t p r o c e d u r e s r e f l e c t e d t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y
l o c a l s t a n d a r d s . I n 1 9 9 2 a n d 2 0 0 1 , s c h o o l s u s e d t h e i r a u t h o r i t y t o
a d m i n i s t e r t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e a s a p a r t o f c u r r i c u l u m . P a r e n t a l
i n f o r m e d c o n s e n t w a s s o u g h t i n 2 0 1 1 a n d 2 0 1 9 . T h e 2 0 1 9 s u r v e y
w a s a p p r o v e d b y t h e R e s e a r c h E t h i c s C o m m i t t e e o f M a s a r y k
U n i v e r s i t y ( R e f . N o . E K V - 2 0 1 8 - 0 2 6 ) .
Measures
Well-being
A t o t a l o f 1 3 i t e m s a d d r e s s i n g a d o l e s c e n t s s u b j e c t i v e w e l l b
e i n g w e r e s e l e c t e d f r o m t h e B e r n e Q u e s t i o n n a i r e o n A d o l e s c e n t s '
W e l l - B e i n g ( B S W - Y ; G r o b e t a l . , 1 9 9 1 ) . T h e y r e p r e s e n t t w o f a c t o r s ,
n a m e l y l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n a n d s e l f - e s t e e m . T h e B S W - Y h a s b e e n
s h o w n t o h a v e s a t i s f a c t o r y p s y c h o m e t r i c p r o p e r t i e s ( G r o b e t a l . ,
1 9 9 1 ; G r o b , 1 9 9 5 ) . T h e i t e m s u s e a 4 - p o i n t r e s p o n s e s c a l e f r o m 1
( t o t a l l y f a l s e ) t o 4 ( v e r y t r u e ) . T h e 8 - i t e m s o f life satisfaction ( L S )
s c a l e fit a u n i d i m e n s i o n a l m o d e l ( o r d i n a l C F A r o b u s t C F I = 0 . 9 6 7 ,
S R M R = 0 . 0 4 3 ) , w i t h a l l i t e m s l o a d i n g w e l l o n t h e f a c t o r o f l i f e
s a t i s f a c t i o n , r e s u l t i n g i n s u f f i c i e n t i n t e r n a l c o n s i s t e n c y
( M c D o n a l d s o m e g a = 0 . 7 5 ) . T h e 5 - i t e m s c a l e o f s e l f - e s t e e m a l s o
fit a s i m p l e u n i d i m e n s i o n a l m o d e l ( o r d i n a l C F A r o b u s t
C F I = 0 . 9 4 5 , S R M R = 0 . 0 5 6 ) , w i t h a l l i t e m s l o a d i n g w e l l o n t h e
s i n g l e f a c t o r , r e s u l t i n g i n s u f f i c i e n t i n t e r n a l c o n s i s t e n c y
( M c D o n a l d s o m e g a = 0 . 7 5 ) .
Daily hassles (DH)
T h e i n v e n t o r y d e v e l o p e d i n t h e E u r o n e t P i l o t S t u d y
( A l s a k e r e t a l . , 1 9 9 9 ) u s e s 1 1 i t e m s a s k i n g a b o u t t h e e x t e n t t o
w h i c h s e l e c t e d l i f e d o m a i n s ( f o r t h e l i s t s e e T a b l e 2 ) p r e s e n t e d
o b s t a c l e s o r d i f f i c u l t i e s t o t h e r e s p o n d e n t o v e r t h e p r e v i o u s 6
m o n t h s . T h e i t e m s u s e a 4 - p o i n t r e s p o n s e s c a l e f r o m 1 ( n o t a t
a l l d i f f i c u l t ) t o 4 ( v e r y d i f f i c u l t ) . R e s p o n s e s w e r e s u m m e d t o
i n d i c a t e t h e o v e r a l l l e v e l o f p e r c e i v e d d a i l y h a s s l e s . T h i s s u m
i s n o t i n t e n d e d a s a r e f l e c t i v e m e a s u r e m e n t o f a c o n s t r u c t b u t
as a f o r m a t i v e i n d e x o f t h e t o t a l a m o u n t o f p e r c e i v e d h a s s l e s
i n t h e 1 1 d o m a i n s . T h e p o l y c h o r i c c o r r e l a t i o n s a m o n g i t e m s
r a n g e f r o m 0 . 0 5 t o 0 . 3 9 s u g g e s t i n g ( 1 ) n o s t r o n g l a t e n t v a r i a b l e
i s p r o d u c i n g t h e p e r c e i v e d h a s s l e s ( 2 ) t h e r e a r e n o
c o m p e n s a t o r y r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n t h e d o m a i n s o f h a s s l e s i n
w h i c h p e r c e i v i n g p r o b l e m s i n o n e d o m a i n w o u l d p r e v e n t o r
r e d u c e p e r c e i v i n g h a s s l e s i n a n o t h e r . W i t h o n l y c r o s s s
e c t i o n a l d a t a w e c a n e s t i m a t e r e l i a b i l i t y w i t h M c D o n a l d s
o m e g a t o t a l = 0 . 7 7 e s t i m a t i n g t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f a l l s y s t e m a t i c
v a r i a n c e i n a n u n w e i g h t e d c o m p o s i t e s c o r e ( R e v e l l e a n d
C o n d o n , 2 0 1 9 ) .
Analysis
L i n e a r m o d e l s w e r e e s t i m a t e d i n I B M S P S S 2 8 u s i n g t h e
G E N L I N p r o c e d u r e w i t h r o b u s t s t a n d a r d e r r o r s . M o d e l s w i t h
i n d i v i d u a l h a s s l e s w e r e r u n o n 1 0 m u l t i p l e - i m p u t e d d a t a s e t s t o
o v e r c o m e t h e m i s s i n g r e s p o n s e s i n h a s s l e s w i t h b o y / g i r l f r i e n d .
T h e p o o l e d v a l u e s o f p a r a m e t e r s r e p o r t e d b e l o w d i d n o t
m e a n i n g f u l l y d i f f e r f r o m t h e p a r a m e t e r s f o u n d i n t h e
u n i m p u t e d d a t a .
V a l i d i t y c h e c k s o n t h e w e l l - b e i n g s c a l e a n d h a s s l e s i t e m s
i n c l u d e d n u m b e r o f v a l i d r e s p o n s e s , t o o f a s t r e s p o n s e s , a n d
s t r i n g s o f i d e n t i c a l r e s p o n s e s . T h i s e x c l u d e d 2 , 5 , 8 , a n d 1 2 4
r e s p o n d e n t s f r o m t h e r e s p e c t i v e c o h o r t s .
M e a s u r e m e n t m o d e l s w e r e e s t i m a t e d i n R ( R C o r e T e a m ,
2 0 2 1 ) w i t h t h e l a v a a n p a c k a g e ( R o s s e e l , 2 0 1 2 ) a n d o m e g a t o t a l
w a s e s t i m a t e d w i t h p a c k a g e p s y c h ( R e v e l l e , 2 0 2 2 ) .
Results
Descriptive statistics
L i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n s c o r e s w e r e s l i g h t i y n e g a t i v e l y s k e w e d a c r o s s
t h e f o u r c o h o r t s . I t s m e a n s a n d s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s ( T a b l e 1 )
c h a n g e d v e r y l i t t l e o v e r t i m e [ W e l c h ' s _F(3, 5 9 8 . 4 ) = 5 . 9 9 , p < 0 . 0 0 1 ,
a ) 2
= 0 . 0 0 3 ] . T h e g e n d e r e f f e c t w a s s m a l l , w i t h m a l e s r e p o r t i n g
s l i g h t i y h i g h e r l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n [ W e l c h ' s F ( l , 3 , 9 1 3 ) = 3 4 . 2 , p < 0 . 0 0 1 ,
ft»2
= 0 . 0 0 8 ] .
S e l f - e s t e e m s h o w e d s i m i l a r d i s t r i b u t i o n w i t h m i n i m a l
c o h o r t d i f f e r e n c e s [ W e l c h ' s F ( 3 , 6 0 7 . 0 ) = 1 1 . 9 , p < 0 . 0 0 1 ,
ft>2
= 0 . 0 0 7 ] . T h e g e n d e r e f f e c t w a s s m a l l , w i t h m a l e s r e p o r t i n g
s l i g h t l y h i g h e r s e l f - e s t e e m [ W e l c h ' s F(l, 3 , 8 6 2 ) = 1 8 2 . 1 ,
p<0.001, a ) 2
= 0 . 0 4 4 ] . L i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n a n d s e l f - e s t e e m w e r e
p o s i t i v e l y c o r r e l a t e d a c r o s s c o h o r t s ( r ' s = 0 . 4 8 , 0 . 5 6 , 0 . 6 1 , a n d
0 . 6 3 , r e s p e c t i v e l y ) .
D e s c r i p t i v e s t a t i s t i c s o f i n d i v i d u a l d a i l y h a s s l e s t r e a t e d a s a
c o n t i n u o u s v a r i a b l e a r e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 2 s e p a r a t e l y b y c o h o r t .
T h e m e a n s w e r e a l l b e l o w 3 , c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o " s o m e w h a t
b o t h e r s o m e , " a l t h o u g h m o s t v a l u e s w e r e b e l o w 2 , i n d i c a t i n g " n o t
v e r y b o t h e r s o m e . " T a b l e 1 r e p o r t s t h e d e s c r i p t i v e s t a t i s t i c s o f t h e
t o t a l d a i l y h a s s l e s ( t h e m e a n o f i n d i v i d u a l h a s s l e s ) . T h e c o h o r t
d i f f e r e n c e s i n m e a n s o f D H w e r e m i n i m a l [ W e l c h ' s - F ( 3 ,
6 0 3 . 9 ) = 8.9, p < 0 . 0 0 1 , w2
= 0 . 0 0 6 ] . G e n d e r d i f f e r e n c e s i n m e a n D H
d i f f e r e d a c r o s s c o h o r t s . I n 2 0 1 9 , f e m a l e s r e p o r t e d h i g h e r l e v e l o f
D H ( C o h e n d = 0 . 4 0 ) , w h e r e a s t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n e a r l i e r
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TABLE 1 Descriptive statistic of life satisfaction, self-esteem, and total daily hassles scores by cohort.
N M S D Minimum (1) Maximum (4) Skewness Kurtosi
L i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n
1992
2 5 4 2.87 0.42 1.38 3.88 - 0 . 4 3
0.63
2 0 0 1 3 0 5 2.95 0.43 1.63 4.00 - 0 . 3 4 0.09
2 0 1 1 3 6 2 2.92 0.49 1.38 4.00 - 0 . 5 7 0.34
2 0 1 9 3,063 2.98 0.46 1.00 4.00 - 0 . 6 4 0.48
S e l f - e s t e e m
1992 2 5 5 2.87 0.50 1.40 4.00 - 0 . 1 7 - 0 . 3 5
2 0 0 1 3 0 3 2.92 0.53 1.40 4.00 - 0 . 3 5 - 0 . 1 1
2 0 1 1 3 6 2 2.90 0.59 1.20 4.00 - 0 . 3 1 - 0 . 4 1
2 0 1 9 3 , 0 5 4 2.77 0.62 1.00 4.00 - 0 . 3 9 - 0 . 3 0
D a i l y hassles t o t a l
1992 2 5 5 1.90 0.37 1.00 2.91 0.35 - 0 . 1 9
2 0 0 1 3 0 1 1.93 0.35 1.00 3.18 0.28 - 0 . 0 9
2 0 1 1 3 6 3 2.02 0.44 1.00 4.00 0.79 1.87
2 0 1 9 3,062 1.90 0.44 1.00 4.00 0.50 0.29
TABLE 2 Descriptive statistics of individual daily hassles domains by cohort.
Cohort
M
1992
SD M
2001
SD M
2011
SD M
2019
SD Welch p m1
S c h o o l 2.64 0 . 8 2 2 . 6 3 0.70 2 . 7 5 0.85 2 . 6 0 0.85 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 0 2
M o n e y 2.36 0.91 2.36 0.89 2.33 0.89 1.91 0.83 < 0 . 0 0 1 0.045
B o y / g i r l f r i e n d 2.10 0.98 2.18 1.03 2.29 1.11 2.09 1.15 0.009 0.002
F r i e n d s & 1.57 0.72 1.54 0.66 1.79 0.85 1.93 0.89 < 0 . 0 0 1 0.022
peers
A c t i v e s p o r t s 1.78 0.92 1.92 0.99 2.01 0.99 1.99 0.97 0 . 0 0 4 0.003
P a r e n t s a n d 1.91 0.91 2.05 0.89 2.20 1.03 1.98 0.97 < 0 . 0 0 1 0 . 0 0 4
f a m i l y
H o m e a n d 1.54 0.80 1.54 0.81 1.63 0.88 1.46 0.76 0.002 0 . 0 0 4
n e i g h b o r s
H e a l t h 1.73 0.84 1.74 0.78 1.84 0.82 1.81 0.87 0.179 < 0 . 0 0 1
L e i s u r e t i m e 1.67 0.88 1.66 0.82 1.69 0.84 1.77 0.88 0 . 0 2 4 0.002
P u b l i c 1.77 0.74 1.85 0.81 1.83 0.78 1.71 0.73 0.002 0.003
i n f o r m a t i o n
access
O w n r o o m 1.82 1.07 1.80 0.97 1.88 1.05 1.64 0.92 < 0 . 0 0 1 0 . 0 0 7
T h e theoretical range w a s 1-4. H i g h e r values represent a h i g h e r perceived level o f hassles. W e l c h p is the p - v a l u e o f the F-test w i t h 3 a n d 5 7 0 - 6 1 4 degrees o f f r e e d o m w i t h Welch's
correction.
c o h o r t s w e r e c l o s e t o z e r o [ i n t e r a c t i o n F ( 3 , 7 0 7 . 1 ) = 1 2 . 8 , p< 0 . 0 0 1 ,
co2
= 0 . 0 0 9 ] .
Linear m o d e l s predicting life satisfaction
T h e p r i m a r y a i m o f t h e a n a l y s i s w a s t o see w h e t h e r s e l f - r e p o r t e d
d a i l y h a s s l e s i n l i f e a r e r e l a t e d t o s e l f - r e p o r t e d L S a n d w h e t h e r t h i s
r e l a t i o n s h i p d i f f e r s a c r o s s c o h o r t s . W e u s e d s t a n d a r d i z e d L S a s t h e
o u t c o m e i n a l i n e a r m o d e l a n d g e n d e r ( t h e m a l e w a s t h e r e f e r e n c e
c a t e g o r y ) , c o h o r t ( 2 0 1 9 w a s t h e r e f e r e n c e c a t e g o r y ) , a n d s t a n d a r d i z e d
s e l f - e s t e e m as p r e d i c t o r s . I n s e p a r a t e m o d e l s , D H e n t e r e d e i t h e r a s
i n d i v i d u a l p r e d i c t o r s o r as a s i n g l e v a r i a b l e r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e o v e r a l l
l e v e l o f hassles.
T h e m o d e l s r e p o r t e d i n T a b l e 3 i n c l u d e d i n t e r a c t i o n s b e t w e e n
g e n d e r a n d D H , c o h o r t a n d D H , a n d c o h o r t a n d g e n d e r . W e a l s o
e s t i m a t e d a m o d e l w i t h a t h r e e - w a y i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n g e n d e r ,
c o h o r t , a n d D H , b u t t h i s i n t e r a c t i o n d i d n o t c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e
e x p l a i n e d v a r i a n c e w h i l e u s i n g m a n y d e g r e e s o f f r e e d o m .
The model with individual daily hassles ( M i a a n d M l b i n
T a b l e 3 ) . T h e c o h o r t s d i d n o t d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t i y i n l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n
w h e n D H w e r e z e r o [ W a l d , ^ ( 3 ) = 4 . 9 7 , p = 0 . 1 7 4 ] . G e n d e r
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TABLE 3 Parameters of the linear models predicting life satisfaction.
Parameter M i a Mlb M2a M2b
B (SB) B ( S E ) B ( S E ) B ( S E )
( I n t e r c e p t ) 0.97 ( 0 . 0 6 ) 0.39 ( 0 . 0 5 ) 0.93 ( 0 . 0 5 ) 0.36 ( 0 . 0 5 )
C o h o r t
1992 - 0 . 2 0 (0.17) - 0 . 0 9 (0.15) -0.38 (0.15) -0.28 (0.13)
2 0 0 1 - 0 . 0 8 (0.19) - 0 . 0 4 (0.16) 0.05 (0.16) 0.07 (0.13)
2 0 1 1 0.05 (0.16) 0.06 (0.13) - 0 . 0 5 (0.14) - 0 . 0 4 (0.13)
G e n d e r = f e m a l e 0.12 (0.08) 0.22 (0.06) 0.14 (0.07) 0.25 (0.06)
C o h o r t X g e n d e r = f e m a l e
1992 -0.34 (0.12) - 0 . 2 6 (0.11) -0.40 (0.12) -0.24 (0.10)
2 0 0 1 - 0 . 1 3 (0.11) - 0 . 1 6 (0.09) - 0 . 1 3 (0.11) - 0 . 1 3 ( 0 . 0 9 )
2 0 1 1 - 0 . 2 6 (0.11) -0.24 (0.09) - 0 . 3 0 (0.11) - 0 . 2 2 (0.09)
S e l f - e s t e e m ( s t a n d a r d i z e d ) 0.53 (0.02)
Daily hassles ( s e m i - s t a n d a r d i z e d ) -0.43 (0.03) -0.18 (0.02)
S c h o o l -0.09 (0.03) - 0 . 0 6 (0.03)
M o n e y -0.15 (0.03) -0.12 (0.03)
B o y / g i r l f r i e n d -0.10 (0.02) - 0 . 0 2 (0.02)
F r i e n d s a n d peers -0.09 (0.03) 0.06 (0.03)
A c t i v e s p o r t s - 0 . 0 6 (0.02) - 0 . 0 3 (0.02)
P a r e n t s a n d f a m i l y -0.14 (0.03) -0.07 (0.03)
H o m e a n d n e i g h b o r s - 0 . 0 1 (0.03) 0.01 (0.03)
H e a l t h -0.09 (0.03) - 0 . 0 5 (0.03)
L e i s u r e t i m e -0.10 (0.03) - 0 . 0 5 (0.03)
P u b l i c i n f o r m a t i o n access -0.14 (0.03) -0.10 (0.03)
O w n r o o m - 0 . 0 2 (0.03) - 0 . 0 1 (0.03)
Cohort X daily hassles 0.16 (0.06) 0.04 (0.06)
1992
2 0 0 1 - 0 . 0 1 (0.07) - 0 . 0 8 (0.05)
2 0 1 1 0.08 (0.06) - 0 . 0 1 (0.05)
S c h o o l * 1 9 9 2 -0.19 (0.07) -0.20 (0.06)
2 0 0 1 0.10 (0.09) 0.08 (0.07)
2 0 1 1 - 0 . 1 4 (0.06) - 0 . 1 1 (0.05)
M o n e y * 1 9 9 2 0.13 (0.07) 0.08 (0.06)
2 0 0 1 0.02 (0.06) - 0 . 0 2 (0.05)
2 0 1 1 0.05 (0.07) 0.05 (0.06)
B o y / g i r l f r i e n d * 1 9 9 2 0.08 (0.06) 0.07 (0.06)
2 0 0 1 - 0 . 0 1 (0.06) - 0 . 0 2 (0.05)
2 0 1 1 - 0 . 0 4 (0.05) - 0 . 0 3 (0.04)
F r i e n d s a n d p e e r s * 1 9 9 2 - 0 . 0 3 (0.10) - 0 . 0 6 (0.08)
2 0 0 1 0.03 (0.08) 0.05 (0.07)
2 0 1 1 0.03 (0.07) 0.03 (0.06)
A c t i v e s p o r t s * 1 9 9 2 0.04 (0.06) 0.00 (0.06)
2 0 0 1 - 0 . 0 5 (0.06) - 0 . 0 6 (0.05)
2 0 1 1 0.07 (0.06) 0.03 (0.05)
P a r e n t s a n d f a m i l y * 1 9 9 2 0.01 (0.07) 0.01 (0.06)
2 0 0 1 0.04 (0.06) - 0 . 0 3 (0.05)
2 0 1 1 - 0 . 0 6 (0.06) - 0 . 0 7 (0.05)
H o m e a n d n e i g h b o r s * 1 9 9 2 0.02 (0.06) - 0 . 0 5 (0.06)
2 0 0 1 0.00 (0.07) 0.03 (0.06)
2 0 1 1 0.02 (0.06) - 0 . 0 4 (0.05)
H e a l t h * 1 9 9 2 0.05 (0.07) 0.03 (0.06)
(Continued)
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TABLE 3 Continued
Parameter M i a Mlb M2a M2b
B ( S E ) B ( S E ) B ( S E ) B ( S E )
2001 0.02 (0.08) 0.07 (0.06)
2011 0.08 (0.07) 0.08 (0.07)
L e i s u r e t i m e * 1 9 9 2 0.01 (0.07) - 0 . 0 1 (0.07)
2001 - 0 . 0 9 (0.07) - 0 . 0 9 (0.06)
2011 0.06 (0.08) 0.03 (0.07)
P u b l i c i n f o r m a t i o n access * 1 9 9 2 0 . 1 3 ( 0 . 0 9 ) 0.19 (0.08)
2001 0.01 (0.07) 0.04 (0.06)
2011 0 . 2 0 ( 0 . 0 7 ) 0.05 (0.06)
O w n r o o m * 1 9 9 2 0.02 (0.06) - 0 . 0 1 (0.05)
2001 - 0 . 0 2 (0.06) - 0 . 0 9 (0.05)
2011 0.00 (0.06) 0.01 (0.05)
G e n d e r = f e m a l e X d a i l y hassles - 0 . 0 7 (0.03) - 0 . 0 6 (0.03)
F e m a l e * s c h o o l - 0 . 0 2 (0.04) 0.00 (0.03)
F e m a l e * m o n e y 0.05 (0.04) 0.08 (0.03)
F e m a l e * b o y / g i r l f r i e n d 0.00 (0.03) - 0 . 0 3 (0.02)
F e m a l e * f r i e n d s a n d peers 0.03 (0.04) - 0 . 0 4 (0.03)
F e m a l e * a c t i v e s p o r t s 0.02 (0.03) 0.00 (0.03)
F e m a l e * p a r e n t s a n d f a m i l y - 0 . 1 3 ( 0 . 0 4 ) - 0 . 1 0 ( 0 . 0 3 )
F e m a l e * h o m e a n d n e i g h b o r s - 0 . 0 9 (0.04) - 0 . 0 8 (0.03)
F e m a l e * h e a l t h 0.01 (0.04) 0.02 (0.04)
F e m a l e * l e i s u r e t i m e 0.00 (0.04) 0.00 (0.03)
F e m a l e * p u b l i c i n f o r m a t i o n access 0.00 (0.04) 0.05 (0.04)
F e m a l e * o w n r o o m - 0 . 0 2 (0.04) 0.00 (0.03)
R1
0.239 0.440 0 . 2 0 9 0 . 4 1 7
Effects i n bold, p< 0.01. Reference categories are 2 0 1 9 a n d m a l e . Life satisfaction a n d self-esteem i n t h e m o d e l are standardized—B's can be interpreted as betas o r C o h e n ds. D a i l y hassles
w e r e recoded t o a scale f r o m 0 ( n o t at all difficult) t o 3 (very difficult) a n d t h e overall daily hassles score has been d i v i d e d b y its s t a n d a r d deviation so that i t expresses t h e a m o u n t o f
hassles as a m u l t i p l e o f SDs f r o m zero hassles.
d i f f e r e n c e s i n L S w e r e s m a l l , r a n g i n g f r o m C o h e n d o f 0 . 2 2 i n
f a v o r o f m a l e s i n 1 9 9 2 t o d = 0 . 1 2 i n f a v o r o f f e m a l e s i n 2 0 1 9 ; s t i l l ,
g e n d e r d i f f e r e n c e a c r o s s c o h o r t s w a s s i g n i f i c a n t [ W a l d / 2
^ ) = 1 2 . 8 ,
p = 0 . 0 0 5 ] .
T h e e f f e c t o f D H w a s i n t h e e x p e c t e d d i r e c t i o n . F o r m o s t
c a t e g o r i e s o f h a s s l e s , t h e i r u n i q u e e f f e c t s w e r e s m a l l b u t
s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t . T h e d i f f e r e n c e i n m e a n L S b e t w e e n n o
r e p o r t e d h a s s l e s ( c o d e d 0 ) a n d " v e r y d i f f i c u l t " h a s s l e s ( c o d e d
3 ) w a s a r o u n d 0 . 3 s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n o f L S i n t h e
l a t e s t ( r e f e r e n c e ) c o h o r t . T h e c a t e g o r i e s w i t h t h e g r e a t e s t
e f f e c t w e r e h a s s l e s r e l a t e d t o m o n e y , p a r e n t s a n d f a m i l y , a n d
a c c e s s t o p u b l i c i n f o r m a t i o n . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , h a s s l e s
r e l a t e d t o s p o r t s , n e i g h b o r s , o r h a v i n g t h e i r o w n r o o m d i d n o t
h a v e a u n i q u e e f f e c t o n L S . T h e u n i q u e e f f e c t s o f h a s s l e s d i d
n o t d i f f e r m u c h b e t w e e n c o h o r t s . O n l y h a s s l e s r e l a t e d t o
s c h o o l a p p e a r e d t o h a v e a m o r e p r o n o u n c e d e f f e c t i n 1 9 9 2
a n d 2 0 1 1 .
C o n v e r s e l y , h a s s l e s r e l a t e d t o m o n e y h a d a m u c h s m a l l e r
e f f e c t i n 1 9 9 2 . I n 1 9 9 2 a n d 2 0 1 1 , t h e e f f e c t o f h a s s l e s r e l a t e d t o
p u b l i c i n f o r m a t i o n a c c e s s w a s m u c h s m a l l e r . A p a r t f r o m h a s s l e s
r e l a t e d t o p a r e n t s a n d f a m i l y , w h e r e t h e e f f e c t w a s a l m o s t d o u b l e
f o r f e m a l e s , a n d t o a l e s s e r e x t e n t h a s s l e s r e l a t e d t o n e i g h b o r s , t h e
h a s s l e s e f f e c t s w e r e i n d e p e n d e n t o f g e n d e r .
A d d i n g s e l f - e s t e e m t o t h e m o d e l d e c r e a s e d m o s t o f t h e
e f f e c t s d u e t o c o l l i n e a r i t y , a s e x p e c t e d . T h e e f f e c t o f s e l f - e s t e e m
w a s u n d e r s t a n d a b l y l a r g e {B = 0 . 5 3 , p < 0 . 0 0 1 ) . T h e i n c l u s i o n o f
s t a n d a r d i z e d s e l f - e s t e e m a s a n o t h e r p r e d i c t o r c h a n g e d t h e
e f f e c t s , a s t h e y n o w r e p r e s e n t e d t h e u n i q u e e f f e c t s o f h a s s l e s o n
t h e p a r t o f L S v a r i a n c e n o t a f f e c t e d b y o r r e l a t e d t o s e l f - e s t e e m .
T h e e f f e c t s o f h a s s l e s r e l a t e d t o m o n e y a n d p a r e n t s / f a m i l y w e r e
t h e l e a s t a f f e c t e d b y t h e i n c l u s i o n o f s e l f - e s t e e m a n d r e m a i n e d
s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t . T h e e f f e c t o f h a s s l e s r e l a t e d t o p u b l i c
i n f o r m a t i o n a c c e s s w a s i n d e p e n d e n t o f s e l f - e s t e e m . T h e e f f e c t o f
h a s s l e s r e l a t e d t o p a r e n t s a n d f a m i l y w a s s t i l l m u c h h i g h e r
i n f e m a l e s .
The model with total daily hassles ( M 2 a a n d M 2 b i n T a b l e 3 ) .
T h e e f f e c t o f t o t a l D H o n L S w a s m e d i u m a n d s i g n i f i c a n t
( B = - 0 . 4 3 , p <0.001). I n 1 9 9 2 , t h e e f f e c t w a s s m a l l e r t h a n i n t h e
l a t e r c o h o r t s . W h e n s e l f - e s t e e m w a s c o n t r o l l e d , t h e e f f e c t o f t o t a l
D H d e c r e a s e d t o l e s s t h a n h a l f b u t r e m a i n e d s i g n i f i c a n t . T h e e f f e c t
o f D H w a s s l i g h t l y b u t n o n - s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r i n f e m a l e s t h a n
i n m a l e s .
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H e r e , t h e i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n g e n d e r a n d c o h o r t w a s
c l e a r e r . I n a l l t h e e a r l i e r c o h o r t s , g e n d e r d i f f e r e n c e s i n m e a n l i f e
s a t i s f a c t i o n w e r e m i n i m a l , w h e r e a s , i n t h e 2 0 1 9 c o h o r t ,
f e m a l e s r e p o r t e d h i g h e r s a t i s f a c t i o n t h a n m a l e s b y a b o u t a t h i r d
o f s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y w h e n c o n t r o l l i n g f o r
s e l f - e s t e e m .
Discussion
T h e p r e s e n t s t u d y a i m e d t o d e s c r i b e c h a n g e s i n l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n
o f C z e c h a d o l e s c e n t s o v e r t h e p a s t t h r e e d e c a d e s o f s o c i a l c h a n g e .
O u r g e n e r a l a s s u m p t i o n w a s t h a t s o c i a l p r o c e s s e s a n d c h a n g e s i n
C z e c h s o c i e t y a f f e c t a d o l e s c e n t s ' e v e r y d a y l i v e s a n d l i v e d
e x p e r i e n c e s a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n , w h i c h w a s t h e
f o c u s o f o u r a n a l y s e s . A l t h o u g h w e c o u l d n o t a s s e s s t h e d i r e c t
i n f l u e n c e o f s o c i a l c h a n g e s , w e c a n p u t o u r findings i n t h e c o n t e x t
o f o t h e r s t u d i e s t h a t i n v e s t i g a t e d l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n a r o u n d t h e t i m e
o f o u r s t u d y .
A c c o r d i n g t o t h e E u r o p e a n V a l u e s S t u d y , C z e c h a d u l t s
e x p e r i e n c e d a n i n c r e a s e i n L S i n t h e first d e c a d e f o l l o w i n g t h e
r e g i m e c h a n g e ( 1 9 9 0 - 1 9 9 9 ) . S i n c e 2 0 0 8 , n o s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e i n
L S h a s b e e n o b s e r v e d (Večerník a n d Mysíková, 2 0 1 4 ) . A s i m i l a r
r e s u l t w a s f o u n d i n t h e H B S C s t u d y , w h i c h t r a c k e d t h e L S o f C z e c h
a d o l e s c e n t s f r o m 2 0 0 2 t o 2 0 1 4 . T h e a d o l e s c e n t s i n o u r s t u d y s e e m e d
t o f o l l o w t h i s g e n e r a l t r e n d . T h e r a w m e a n s o f L S d i d n o t d i f f e r
m u c h a c r o s s c o h o r t s , b u t w h e n w e a c c o u n t e d f o r g e n d e r a n d D H s ,
l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n i n t h e 1 9 9 2 c o h o r t w a s m u c h l o w e r t h a n i n t h e l a t e r
c o h o r t s . S i n c e t h i s e f f e c t d i f f e r e d w h e n w e i n c l u d e d i n d i v i d u a l
h a s s l e s i n t h e m o d e l , t h e c o h o r t d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e s t r u c t u r e D H s
l i k e l y o b s c u r e d c o h o r t d i f f e r e n c e s i n r a w l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n .
R e g a r d i n g g e n d e r d i f f e r e n c e s , b o y s u s u a l l y r e p o r t a s s l i g h t l y
m o r e s a t i s f i e d t h a n g i r l s (Hodačová e t a l . , 2 0 1 7 ) . W h e n a c c o u n t i n g
f o r h a s s l e s , t h e f e m a l e s r e p o r t e d h i g h e r l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n , e x c e p t f o r
1 9 9 2 , w h e n m a l e s s c o r e d h i g h e r o n l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n . H e n c e , t h e
m a l e l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n a d v a n t a g e a p p e a r s t o b e d u e t o f e w e r
p e r c e i v e d h a s s l e s . W e f o u n d s u p p o r t f o r t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t selfe
s t e e m i s a s t a b l e p r e d i c t o r o f a d o l e s c e n t s ' L S (e.g., D i e n e r a n d
D i e n e r , 2 0 0 9 ; M o k s n e s a n d E s p n e s , 2 0 1 3 ) . W e o b s e r v e d m i n i m a l
g e n d e r d i f f e r e n c e s , e x c e p t i n 2 0 1 9 w h e n g i r l s r e p o r t e d h i g h e r l i f e
s a t i s f a c t i o n a f t e r c o n t r o l l i n g f o r s e l f - e s t e e m , w h i c h i s c o n s i s t e n t
w i t h Z e i g l e r - H i l l a n d M y e r s ( 2 0 1 2 ) . S e l f - e s t e e m i s u s u a l l y m o r e
s t a b l e c o m p a r e d t o l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n ( D i e n e r a n d D i e n e r , 2 0 0 9 ;
A n u s i c a n d S c h i m m a c k , 2 0 1 6 ) . O u r r e s u l t s a r e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h
t h e s e findings, w i t h t h e f o u r c o h o r t s o f a d o l e s c e n t s d i f f e r i n g o n l y
m i n i m a l l y i n t h e s e l f - e s t e e m m e a n s .
T h e p e r c e i v e d v o l u m e o f d a i l y h a s s l e s w a s f o u n d t o b e h i g h l y
p r e d i c t i v e o f L S . E v e n w h e n c o n t r o l l i n g f o r d e m o g r a p h i c
v a r i a b l e s , L S q u i c k l y d e c r e a s e d w i t h d a i l y h a s s l e s . T h e a s s o c i a t i o n
a p p e a r e d s t a b l e o v e r t i m e , a l t h o u g h t h e l i n k w a s w e a k e r i n 1 9 9 2 .
T h i s finding c a n b e i n t e r p r e t e d b a s e d o n a m a c r o s o c i a l v i e w o f
a d o l e s c e n t s ' l i v e s : t h e e u p h o r i a a f t e r t h e f a l l o f c o m m u n i s m a n d
n e w o p p o r t u n i t i e s l e d t o a n u n u s u a l l y h i g h l e v e l o f l i f e o p t i m i s m
a m o n g m o s t y o u n g C z e c h s i n t h e first h a l f o f t h e 1 9 9 0 s . E v e r y d a y
d i f f i c u l t i e s w e r e m o r e o f t e n v i e w e d a s n e c e s s a r y b u t o n l y
t e m p o r a r y c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h e r a p i d s o c i a l c h a n g e m o d e r a t i n g
t h e i r n e g a t i v e e f f e c t o n l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n . I n t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r s ,
e c o n o m i c c o n d i t i o n s d e c l i n e d a l o n g w i t h t h e l e v e l o f o p t i m i s m
i n t h e C z e c h p o p u l a t i o n ( L i n e k , 2 0 1 0 ) . C z e c h s b e c a m e m o r e
s k e p t i c a l o f t h e i r l i f e e x p e c t a t i o n s , a n d t h e i r l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n w a s
m o r e l i n k e d t o t h e i r e v e r y d a y e x p e r i e n c e . T h e r e f o r e , t h e l i n k
b e t w e e n p e r c e p t i o n s o f d a i l y h a s s l e s a n d l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n w a s
s t r o n g e r f o r o t h e r c o h o r t s a s w e l l .
W h i l e a l l t h e d o m a i n s o f d a i l y h a s s l e s c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e
d e c r e a s e i n L S , t h e i r u n i q u e e f f e c t s d i f f e r . P r o b l e m s e x p e r i e n c e d
b y a d o l e s c e n t s a t s c h o o l w e r e t h e b i g g e s t c o n t r i b u t o r s t o
d e c r e a s e d L S , b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e a l s o t h e m o s t f r e q u e n t d o m a i n
o f h a s s l e s (cf, B a r r e t t a n d H e u b e c k , 2 0 0 0 ; B o o t h a n d A n t h o n y ,
2 0 1 5 ) . S c h o o l d i f f i c u l t i e s d i f f e r e d f r o m o t h e r d i f f i c u l t i e s i n t h a t
t h e y h a d a h i g h e r e f f e c t o n L S i n 1 9 9 2 . S c h o o l s ' s o c i a l i n f l u e n c e
i n t h e c o m m u n i s t e r a w a s s t i l l h i g h i n 1 9 9 2 , l e a d i n g t o t h e s c h o o l
d i f f i c u l t i e s b e i n g e x p e r i e n c e d a s m o r e s e r i o u s . A l t h o u g h f e a r s
r e l a t e d t o s c h o o l a r e t h e m o s t f r e q u e n t i n C z e c h a d o l e s c e n t s
(Michalčáková e t a l . , 2 0 1 3 ) , w e f o u n d t h a t i n f l u e n c e o f d a i l y
h a s s l e s r e l a t e d t o t h e s c h o o l o n l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n s l i g h t l y d e c l i n e d
l a t e r . I t m a y b e r e l a t e d t o t h e f a c t t h a t s t u d e n t s c o u l d i n t h i s
p e r i o d p e r c e i v e p r o b l e m s a t s c h o o l as l e s s s e v e r e o r i m p o r t a n t i n
t h e o v e r a l l c o n t e x t o f t h e i r l i f e i n w h i c h a d o l e s c e n t s s t a r t e d t o
b e n e w l y p a r t i a l l y i n f l u e n c e d b y s o c i a l m e d i a ( T w e n g e , 2 0 1 9 ) .
P r o b l e m s w i t h m o n e y w e r e v e r y f r e q u e n t a c r o s s c o h o r t s
e x c e p t t h e l a s t o n e . F o r a d o l e s c e n t s , t h i s i s p r i m a r i l y a p a r e n t a l
s u p p o r t i s s u e ( L a v e e a n d B e n - A r i , 2 0 0 8 ; S u a r e z - M o r a l e s a n d
L o p e z , 2 0 0 9 ) s o t h e s i g n i f i c a n t r e d u c t i o n i n t h e i n c i d e n c e o f
m o n e y p r o b l e m s i n t h e l a s t c o h o r t m a y b e d u e t o t h e r e c e n t
i n c r e a s e i n t h e s t a n d a r d o f l i v i n g o f C z e c h f a m i l i e s (Kuchařová
e t a l . , 2 0 1 9 ) .
A l l o u r findings m u s t b e c o n s i d e r e d i n l i g h t o f t h e f a c t t h a t
t h e r e w e r e u n c o n t r o l l e d s a m p l i n g d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e
i n d i v i d u a l y e a r s . A l t h o u g h t h e s a m p l i n g p r o c e d u r e w a s t h e s a m e ,
s c h o o l s ' m o t i v a t i o n s t o p a r t i c i p a t e , p a r t i c u l a r l y p a r e n t s ' w i l l i n g n e s s
t o p r o v i d e i n f o r m e d c o n s e n t , h a v e c h a n g e d o v e r t h e t h r e e d e c a d e s .
I n 1 9 9 2 , t h e s c h o o l s e x e r c i s e d t h e a u t h o r i t y t o a d m i n i s t e r s u r v e y s
as a p a r t o f t h e c u r r i c u l u m w i t h o u t e x p l i c i t c o n s e n t f r o m p a r e n t s .
T h i s h a s g r a d u a l l y c h a n g e d , a n d i n 2 0 1 1 a n d 2 0 1 9 , i n d i v i d u a l
p a r e n t a l c o n s e n t n e e d e d t o b e s e c u r e d , w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e
p r o p o r t i o n s o f s t u d e n t s n o t p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e s u r v e y .
T h e l i s t o f d a i l y h a s s l e d o m a i n s h a s n o t c h a n g e d s i n c e t h e first
c o h o r t i n 1 9 9 2 . T h e r e l e v a n c e o f i n d i v i d u a l d o m a i n s o f h a s s l e s m a y
h a v e c h a n g e d a n d n e w r e l e v a n t d o m a i n s m a y h a v e e m e r g e d . T h i s
p r e s e n t s a c h a l l e n g e f o r t h e f o r m a t i v e i n d e x o f t h e t o t a l d a i l y h a s s l e s
b e c a u s e f o r m a t i v e i n d i c a t o r s a r e n o t i n t e r c h a n g e a b l e a n d b e c a u s e
t h e a s s u m p t i o n o f t h e c o n s t a n c y o f ( u n i t ) w e i g h t s m a y n o t h o l d .
T h a t q u e s t i o n s t h e v a l i d i t y o f t h e m o d e l u s i n g t o t a l hassles. H o w e v e r ,
t h e m o d e l w i t h i n d i v i d u a l h a s s l e s s h o w s t h a t a p a r t f r o m s c h o o l r
e l a t e d a n d p u b l i c - i n f o r m a t i o n - a c c e s s - r e l a t e d h a s s l e s t h e m a g n i t u d e
o f a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n d o e s n o t c h a n g e s i g n i f i c a n t i y .
D e s p i t e i t s l i m i t a t i o n s , o u r s t u d y s e n d s a p o s i t i v e m e s s a g e
a b o u t t h e w e l l - b e i n g o f C z e c h a d o l e s c e n t s . T h e d a t a s h o w t h a t
Frontiers in Psychology 0 8 frontiersin.org
Macek et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.961373
t h e i r s u b j e c t i v e w e l l - b e i n g , b o t h i n t h e f o r m o f l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n a n d
s e l f - e s t e e m , h a s b e e n s t a b l e o v e r t h e p a s t t h r e e d e c a d e s d e s p i t e t h e
m a c r o s o c i a l c h a n g e s t h e C z e c h s o c i e t y h a s u n d e r g o n e o v e r t h e
p e r i o d . A l t h o u g h t h e f r e q u e n c y o f d a i l y p r o b l e m s h a s c h a n g e d
s l i g h t l y o v e r t h e s e y e a r s , t h e i r i m p a c t o n t h e i r l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n h a s
n o t c h a n g e d m u c h .
Data availability statement
T h e r a w d a t a s u p p o r t i n g t h e c o n c l u s i o n s o f t h i s a r t i c l e w i l l
b e m a d e a v a i l a b l e b y t h e a u t h o r s , w i t h o u t u n d u e r e s e r v a t i o n .
Ethics statement
T h e 2 0 1 9 r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t w a s a p p r o v e d b y t h e R e s e a r c h
E t h i c s C o m m i t t e e o f M a s a r y k U n i v e r s i t y ( R e f . N o . E K V - 2 0 1 8 -
0 2 6 ) . W r i t t e n i n f o r m e d c o n s e n t t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h i s s t u d y w a s
p r o v i d e d b y t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s l e g a l g u a r d i a n / n e x t o f k i n .
Author contributions
P M a n d S J c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e c o n c e p t i o n a n d d e s i g n o f
t h e s t u d y . L L o r g a n i z e d t h e d a t a b a s e . S J p e r f o r m e d t h e
s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s . P M w r o t e t h e f i r s t d r a f t o f t h e m a n u s c r i p t .
P M , S J , a n d L L w r o t e s e c t i o n s o f t h e m a n u s c r i p t . A l l
a u t h o r s c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e a r t i c l e a n d a p p r o v e d t h e s u b m i t t e d
v e r s i o n .
Funding
T h i s w o r k w a s s u p p o r t e d b y t h e C z e c h S c i e n c e F o u n d a t i o n
( g r a n t n u m b e r G A 1 9 - 2 2 9 9 7 S ) a n d a l s o s u p p o r t e d b y M a s a r y k
U n i v e r s i t y , F a c u l t y o f S o c i a l S t u d i e s .
Conflict o f interest
T h e a u t h o r s d e c l a r e t h a t t h e r e s e a r c h w a s c o n d u c t e d i n
t h e a b s e n c e o f a n y c o m m e r c i a l o r f i n a n c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t
c o u l d b e c o n s t r u e d a s a p o t e n t i a l c o n f l i c t o f i n t e r e s t .
Publisher's note
A l l c l a i m s e x p r e s s e d i n t h i s a r t i c l e a r e s o l e l y t h o s e o f t h e
a u t h o r s a n d d o n o t n e c e s s a r i l y r e p r e s e n t t h o s e o f t h e i r a f f i l i a t e d
o r g a n i z a t i o n s , o r t h o s e o f t h e p u b l i s h e r , t h e e d i t o r s a n d t h e
r e v i e w e r s . A n y p r o d u c t t h a t m a y b e e v a l u a t e d i n t h i s a r t i c l e , o r
c l a i m t h a t m a y b e m a d e b y i t s m a n u f a c t u r e r , i s n o t g u a r a n t e e d o r
e n d o r s e d b y t h e p u b l i s h e r .
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