G O I N G B Y C A R
Te a c h e r ´ s b o o k
The Integrated Science project is funded by the European Social Fund and by the state budget of Cech Republic.
The Teachers‘ book was elaborated within the framework of the project: By Means of Synthesis of Natural Sciences
Knowledge to the Development of Teachers' Key Competences with Emphasis on Realization of Curricular Reform.
I N T E G R AT E D S C I E N C E 1
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G O I N G B Y C A R
Te a c h e r ´ s b o o k
PhDr. Hana SVATOŇOVÁ, Ph.D., et al.
M A S A R Y K U N I V E R S I T Y
F A C U L T Y O F E D U C A T I O N
Brno 2012
I N T E G R AT E D S C I E N C E 1
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Authors:
Mgr. Iva FRÝZOVÁ
Doc. RNDr. Jaromír KOLEJKA, CSc.
Mgr. Ing. Libor LNĚNIČKA
Mgr. Darina MÍSAŘOVÁ, Ph.D.
prof. RNDr. Vladislav NAVRÁTIL, CSc.
Mgr. Irena PLUCKOVÁ, Ph.D.
RNDr. Aleš RUDA, Ph.D.
Doc. RNDr. Boris RYCHNOVSKÝ, CSc.
PhDr. Hana SVATOŇOVÁ, Ph.D.
RNDr. Jindřiška SVOBODOVÁ, Ph.D.
Co-ordinator:
Mgr. Irena PLUCKOVÁ, Ph.D.
Translated from the Czech by: Cynthia MILES, Jitka HOFMANNOVÁ, Kateřina MRÁZKOVÁ
Reviewers:
Mgr. Ivana GALÍKOVÁ
PaedDr. Jaroslava OLŠANSKÁ
RNDr. Eva TRNOVÁ, Ph.D.
© 2011 Masarykova univerzita
The materials can be copied for educational purposes only.
ISBN 978-80-210-5665-7
ISBN 978-80-210-5105-8 (čes. vyd.)
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Brno 2009
Vážené kolegyně a vážení kolegové,
otevíráte knihu „Going by car“, která je anglickou variantu textu „Jezdíme
autem“. Tento text jsme vydali jako první z řady integrovaně zpracovaných přírodovědných
témat. Text „Going by car“ byl přeložen českými překladatelkami a následně
byl velmi detailně revidován rodilou mluvčí, paní Cynthií Miles z USA. I díky její
pečlivé práci a mnoha konzultacím s překladatelkami si myslíme, že výsledek překladu
je kvalitní a i rodilý anglicky mluvící učitel přírodních věd by textu rozuměl.
Anglickou verzí textu bychom chtěli posílit užívání cizího – anglického – jazyka
učiteli přírodovědných oborů a jejich prostřednictvím tak působit i na žáky ve
školách. Součástí tohoto textu je i slovníček méně obvyklých anglických termínů
z oblasti přírodních věd. Na přiloženém CD najdete originální českou verzi tématu
„Jezdíme autem“.
„Going by car“ je již sedmým z integrovaně zpracovaných přírodovědných
témat. Kromě zmiňovaného „Jezdíme autem“ byly zpracování texty „Domácnost –
svět v malém“, „ Město a venkov“, „Počasí a podnebí“, Šaty dělají člověka“
a „Robinsonem dnes aneb jak si poradíme, když…“ .
V autorském týmu podílejícím se na zpracování výše uvedených témat jsou
zastoupeni geografové, fyzici, chemici a biologové. Ti se pokusili o společný syntetizující
pohled na každé z nich. Práce lidí, tisk, workshopy a další nutné aktivity byly
financovány ESF projektem s názvem „Syntézou poznatků přírodních věd k rozvoji
klíčových kompetencí učitelů s důrazem na realizaci kurikulární reformy“.
Jménem autorského i překladatelského týmu Vám přejeme, aby Vám text přinesl
zajímavé informace, rozšířil Vaši anglickou slovní zásobu v oblasti přírodních
věd a ukázal na možnosti užití anglického jazyka i v dalších předmětech na základní
a střední škole.
Za autorský tým
Hana Svatoňová a Irena Plucková
I n t r o d u c t i o n
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Content
The Human World and Transport 9
History of Transportation 10
Roads and Bridges 14
The Landscape and Cars 18
Crude Oil Extraction 23
Oil Transportation 28
Oil Processing 30
Automobile Manufacturing 32
The Car Industry 36
Visions and Predictions 38
Car Safety 43
How the Car Operates 45
Who Can Be a Driver? 48
Key Concepts 52
Table of Cross-Curricular Subjects 54
Literature 55
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We travel by car. The car is our companion. Are you wondering why man constantly relocates? What his reasons
are? What the meaning of the word barriers is, and if it is possible for us to overcome them? How everything relates?
We are inviting you to consult this textbook to find the answers to the above questions, and, hopefully, to
many others.
Cars are everywhere. They have changed man and his
behaviour, changed to a certain extent our landscape
and have influenced the urban structure. Cars and everything
which is connected with them are part of our everyday
lives. How can we cope better with this broad issue?
We need to get properly acquainted with the situation
to be able to derive benefits from it later, and to
minimize the adverse circumstances of its impact.
An understanding of the context and the diverse aspects
connected with it will enable us to predict these influences
in future. This can contribute to a safe, healthy
and happy life. Man is the only living being who consciously
uses various means of transport. By using them
he saves energy, which contributes to the immense
growth of civilization. He can devote his time to other
sophisticated activities and their development, as well
as to getting to know his surroundings.
The Human World and Transport
G O I N G B Y C A R
Example of appropriately located
parking place in the centre of Brno
With the development of a post-modern society the importance of transport is steadily growing. Transport is one of the basic
needs of humanity, especially due to potential variations in the terrain of the different countries of the world. People usually
don't find all the things they need for life where they live, and, therefore, they are forced to move their material possessions
and themselves.
The pace of life is speeding up,
and that is why transport is
speeding up as well. This is
the main characteristic of contemporary
development in
the world. People continue to
have a greater need for moving
from one place to another, carrying
loads and transferring information,
while the distances
are still getting longer and
longer.
At present transport is also included among the core sectors of the economy. The current
trend is to overcome the barriers of space in the shortest possible time. Barriers of
space can be understood as physical obstacles (for example, distance and topography) or
social obstacles (employment, trade, services). The word barrier in the context of road
transport represents a new solution (see, for example, the development of the motorway
network in the Czech Republic). Transport development is linked to important aspects of
human society. These aspects are primarily social in nature, and are caused by the needs
and desires of people to meet their everyday needs. For this reason, transport may have
many meanings, of which the most important are the transportation of people and goods
and the transfer of information.
Transport activity determines the spatial distribution of other human activities, while
allowing their concentration in a small area (for example, on the roof of the Vaňkovka
Mall). It unites sectors of the national economy, in particular, and ensures they are complementary
by providing raw materials, products, food and labour. Transport also connects
regions with different requirements for people's lives and their activities. In addition,
it helps to develop cross-border cooperation within Euro regions, whose existence is
dependent on the accessibility and penetrability of national borders.
F u r t h e r t e x t d e a l s
particularly with personal
road transport.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 “DRIVING A CAR” brainstorming – methodological sheet
2 “DRIVING A CAR” mind map – methodological sheet
3a Distinguishing signs – Are you well acquainted with them?
3b Distinguishing signs – Are you well acquainted with them? – worksheet
4a License plates – Are you well acquainted with them?
4b License plates – Are you well acquainted with them? – worksheet
THINK ABOUT
Try to think about the
economic impacts of
transportation. Illustrate
both the positive
and negative impacts
of transportation on
a countries economy.
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Human development
People have been living on the earth for many, many
years and throughout this long period, they have been
forced to move from one place to another and to transport
different belongings. From transport requiring only
their muscles, people gradually moved towards transport
based on an external source of energy – horse power.
During the modern period, horse power has gradually
been replaced by steam engines and engines powered by
electricity – motor vehicles. From simple carrying of
loads, through skid traction, people reached an epoch
-making discovery – the discovery of the wheel.
The wheel is still the fundamental element of transport.
One hundred years ago, at the beginning of
the 20th
century, the classic car structure became set:
motor, gear lever, car chassis, electronic ignition system,
steering wheel and bodywork. This structure
persists, with some minor modifications, to the pre-
sent.
FIRST ON FOOT … LATER BY CARRIAGE
History of Transportation
Wondering which type of transportation is the oldest one? How many kilometers we cover in the course of our
lives? What was the greatest discovery in transport? Did a gunpowder car ever exist? From what word is
the Czech word for petrol “benzin” derived? The following text, among others, answers these questions.
It is not difficult to imagine this way of
transport in old the days (the same
system was used by the American
Indians prior to the arrival of the first
Europeans): loads were carried on
the back or head and heavier ones were
carried with the help of a simple
mechanism called the skid.
“On foot” is the oldest type of transport of all. It has lasted more than 3
million years. Our ancestor – Homo sapiens sapiens, who originated in
Africa, set off on long and significant journeys. He migrated first to
Europe, then to Asia and at last to America. Neanderthal man migrated in
winter to warmer areas of Southern Europe where he could more easily
survive those ice age winters. On the other hand, in summers he hunted
in the northern areas of Europe and in the shelf areas of the North Sea,
which were dry lands during those times. Even today a human covers
a distance of approximately 40 thousand kilometers during his life time –
it is equal to a walk around the earth's equator.
Neolithic expansion in Europe (source: www.wikipedia.cz)
SKID
ON FOOT
G O I N G B Y C A R
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The first, and if not downright epochal, contribution to the improvement of transport was
invented around 3500 BC. It was the wheel (believed to have been invented by the Sumerians
and Assyrians). It is necessary to realize that an inventor often “imitates” nature, i.e.
improves on what he sees around him. But the case of the wheel is different. No living being
is born using the wheel for movement. Therefore, we are talking about the most original,
significant invention of all time, which was not known throughout the world until the modern
period (neither American Indians, nor the Aborigines were not aware of its existence).
Wheels were primarily carved out of tree trunks. However, the primitive carriages with
these massive wooden wheels were too heavy for a drive on soft roads. Later, around 1500
BC, two-wheeled carriages appeared. They were much lighter and were made chiefly for
warfare purposes, and were equipped with wheel rims and iron tyres (these were put on in
a molten condition, so that after cooling, they firmly grasped the wheel). Carriages at that
time were used for transferring goods and for warfare (battering rams, etc.).
The Hussite Corral
The importance of
horses is reflected
in how a unit of
power is measured:
1 h. p. - horse
power = 735, 8 W.
THE WHEEL
One of the oldest paintings illustrating the use of wheels by
the Assyrians around 4000 BC
At roughly the same time that the wheel was invented, people
reached another important step in the development of transport –
the domestication of horses. Thanks to natural selection and patient
breeding work, a number of saddle and draught horses were bred
from the Tarpan horse. The young generation today can hardly realize
how important this beautiful, steady and intelligent animal was
to man. Horse-drawn carriages conveyed newborn babies to baptisms,
as well as the dead to cemeteries (in some cultures horses
were buried with their masters). Horses worked hard in the cultivation
of the land, carried goods and even decided battles. The discoverers
of new lands couldn't get along without them –consider
the role horses played during the colonization of North and South
America. The local inhabitants (the Indians) didn't know about
horses until then because due to unexplained circumstances their
ancestors had died out long ago. For that reason, the Indians considered
a man sitting on a horse as a divine being, and they were
afraid of him. But when they had a chance to get to know the nature
and character of a horse, they became its biggest admirers.
Luckily, in these times horses returned to the Czech countryside –
isn't the most beautiful view of the world from a horse's back?
ON HORSE
Wheel from the National Museum
of Iran, around 2000 BC
Throughout the centuries, horses, donkeys, their crossbreeds
(mules), camels (domesticated about 1000
years later) and oxen were the only “motors”, powering
carriages, wagons and simple agricultural machines.
During modern times, their power has gradually
been replaced by steam and internal- combustion engines,
and engines powered by electricity – motor vehi-
cles.
It is known from our history that during the Hussite
Wars war wagons were used to protect moderately
armoured foot soldiers, so they were
equal adversaries to armoured knights on horse-
back.
G O I N G B Y C A R
History of Transportation
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History of Transportation
The propulsion of a motor vehicle is provided by an engine
which is located in the vehicle. The development of
motor vehicles began at the end of the 19th
century in
a period called the Industrial Revolution. We can divide
them into single-track vehicles, two-track vehicles and
three-track vehicles (three-wheelers), or into road vehicles,
track vehicles and off-road vehicles. The most widespread
motor vehicle nowadays is the automobile (Latin =
self-propelled vehicle).
In 1769 Nicholas Joseph Cugnot (France) constructed a steam powered
three-wheeler whose speed was approximately 3 km/hr. A former Minister
of War decided to provide financial support for its further development.
The new, more powerful steam vehicle went out of control during
the demonstration run and that was the moment of the first recorded
transport accident.
The 19th
century is also called the Century of Steam. This period
was significant due to the construction of more and more capable
and high-efficiency steam engines. The steam engine certainly has
its advantages, but there is also one big disadvantage: if the fire
is extinguished you can't restart the engine right away. First
the boiler, which is filled with water, must be fired up, and then
the water must be kept at the boiling-point all day long, even
though the automobile is parked. This handicap was solved with
the invention of other engines which were not powered by steam.
In 1800 Medhurst from Britain took out a patent for
a compressed-air vehicle, and in 1802 Isaac de Rivaz
from Switzerland took out a patent for a rocket propulsion
vehicle (gunpowder was used). In 1835 Stratingh
from The Netherlands invented the first electromobile.
In 1860 Jean Lenoir from Belgium invented the twostroke
internal-combustion engine with coal-gas as
a fuel. But he didn't reach a speed higher than 6 km/
hr. In 1864 Marcus from Austria constructed a watercooled
engine powered by oil steam which already had
an electromagnetic ignition and a manual gear. In 1885
Gottlieb Daimler and Carl Benz, independent of each
other, took out patents for internal-combustion engine
vehicles. Read more about this in the chapter “How
the car operates”.
Daimler vehicle – wheeled vehicle powered by gas or oil engine
which was located under the seat and between the back axles.
Benz's three-wheeled carriage powered by petrol.
WITH AN ENGINE
WEB LINKS:
www.rsd.cz
www.silnice-dalnice.cz
www.ceskedalnice.cz
G O I N G B Y C A R
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German inventors, Daimler and Benz, were at first competitors in the automobile
industry, but in 1926 they joined forces and established a new motor car
company: Daimler-Benz. The Czech word for petrol “benzín” is derived from
the surname of one of these two inventors– Benz.
And what about the name of the high quality car “Mercedes-Benz”? This is
another reminder of this famous car maker. The beginning of the 20th
century
was distinguished by substantial progress in the automobile industry. Many car
companies were established at that time. Among these, for instance, we can
name Benz, Peugeot, Renault and Fiat. In the Czech lands, which were at that
time integrated into Austria-Hungary, a new outstanding motor car company
was established: Laurin and Klement (later Škoda), Praga and Tatra Kopřivnice.
The turning point in the automobile industry was the introduction of
the mass production system at Ford's factories (USA). One of the best known
cars was the Ford Model T (1908). It was at that time when the classic car
structure became set: motor,
gear lever, car chassis, electronic
ignition system, steering
wheel and bodywork. This
structure persists, with some
minor modifications, to
the present.
Ford Model T
President
Jiří Hanzelka and Miroslav Zikmund with their Tatra in
South Africa
In the interwar period and particularly after the Second
World War, the personal motor car became one of the most
important factors that have ever influenced mankind.
The car nearly becomes a member of
a family. An annual contest is held to
bring the most beautiful car of the year
to light. The winner proclaimed the most
beautiful car in the history was the Citroen
DC.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES:
5 Time line – worksheet
6 Crossword - worksheet
THINK ABOUT :
During the last decades, significant automobile manufacturers
(especially the Asians) joined the traditional companies in the automobile
market. Think of these causes of this change.
Analyze the significant events from the text which occurred in
the development of cars.
Draw up their time sequence.
G O I N G B Y C A R
History of Transportation
HISTORY OF THE TRANSPORT
IN THE CZECH REPUBLIC
With a certain sense of national pride we
might declare that the Czech Republic
plays and has played an important role
in the field of automobile manufacturing
(especially with regard to our country’s
size ). At the turn of the 19th
and
the 20th
centuries, three motor car companies
were in existence in the Czech
Republic when automobile manufacturing
began: Laurin and Klement (later
Škoda), Praga and Kopřivnická Tatra.
Tatraplan became a renowned car because
Hanzelka and Zikmund set off on
several successful journeys around
the world using it.
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When a car goes through the factory doors and starts operating,
it finds itself on a road; although off-road vehicles actually
don’t need roads. The construction of quality and safe roads is
another contribution toward saving time and energy, not to
mention safety. The saving of time, energy and safety are under
the control of planning, construction, reconstruction and
the maintenance of roads. The present standard of roads is
paved roads. Paved roads have been built from the earliest
times, but it was the Romans who started to build them to
a greater extend outside the city. We are talking about roads
paved with stone, sometimes covered with concrete. In
the mid-19th
century, asphalt roads began to appear (first in
Paris, the asphalt was imported from Albania). The big boom in
the construction of asphalt roads was connected with the development
of the chemical industry built on petroleum production
(petrochemical industry - petros = rock) in the first half of
the 20th
century, and especially with the rise of the car culture
after World War II. Social and economic changes contributed to
the situation in the world: a rise in living standards (people
earned enough money not only to eat and live well, but to be
able to buy a car - mass production of cheap cars gradually
ex panded
w o r l d w
i d e ) ;
more free
time (road
t r i p s ) ;
an increase
in mobility
( p e o p l e
b e c a m e
more interested
in
ex plor ing
their sur-
roundings
o u t s i d e
their local
area b
o o k s ,
n e w s p a pers,
magazines,
TV
and radio were no longer enough, and they wanted to see
things with their own eyes) - and all of that along, with
a considerable savings of their own time and energy (this
was not possible when using public transport because it was
sometimes unreliable - humans had just acquired an increased
sense of individuality and autonomy). Thus cars and
roads provided access for ordinary people to many parts of
the world with all the attendant positive and negative con-
sequences.
Massive development of the car industry called for the need
for regulation of transportation and availability. Traffic
rules and other necessary regulations were enacted to reduce
traffic problems. The need for safer traffic touched
not only the cars and roads, but also the creation of rules
and constraints, such as speed limits, no entry areas or
the use of certain car equipment (e.g. horn). Ensuring
the safety and the flow of traffic necessitated the reconstruction
of existing roads, and the construction of new
ones which could carry more vehicles and which had a quality
surface, so that the vehicles could move faster, and
many other aspects which improved the situation on roads.
Motorway construction began – roads were designed for fast
vehicles – cars, motorbikes and buses.
ROADS
Roads and Bridges
Wondering how roads are built? Which roads were built first, and why? What the parts of the technical infrastructure
of road construction are? Which is the longest road tunnel in the world? What is the oldest motorway in
the Czech Republic and how these roads develop over time?
A lot of the trodden paths of our ancestors have vanished,
but a few of them have survived. Roads have always connected
man with his places of interest, and over the centur
i e s t h ey h a v e bee n a d a pt ed t o h i s
needs. People have always looked for the least difficult
routes, secure and rapid, often along streams, or over
mountain passes and saddles. With the increasing need to
save energy and time, people have developed more modern
means of transport. This has led to the building of
more necessary technical facilities (terminals, security
and information facilities). Bridges and tunnels
have been built to overcome natural obstacles.
Roads and other areas with their necessary technical
facilities occupy large spaces in densely populated
and developed parts of the world.
G O I N G B Y C A R
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The first motorways were built in Italy in the '20s of the 20th
century. The U.S.A. Germany and Czechoslovakia began construction
projects in the '30s. After World War II, people started building motorway networks in most countries of
the world. Both old and new network of roads, which were accessible to other road vehicles (bicycles, carts, tractors) were
linked to the motorway network. The road became an integral part of the landscape.
Road transport infrastructure, facilities and other elements of transport networks occupy a substantial part of geographical
areas (transport areas - motorways, high-speed roads and roads, but also all of the technical facilities - bridges, slip-roads,
tunnels, viaducts, wildlife crossings (ecoducts), etc.). Since the '80s, when building a new transport infrastructure,
the emphasis has been placed on costs of construction, transport costs and fast shipment. Modern approaches to new construction
also take into account environmental and technical requirements.
HISTORY
The oldest news about the roads comes from Egypt (3000 BC) and from China
(2000 BC). The Egyptians built their roads of flat, glazed stone blocks to be
able to transport material needed for the construction of the pyramids. In
Europe it was the Greeks, in particular, who paved paths. The first significant
stage of the development of road transport dates back to Roman times. During
this period the Romans managed to build 150,000km of roadways. The Romans
constructed the roads in order to build, administer and maintain their empire.
The road network of the Roman Empire was the highest quality not only in ancient
times. Today a lot of places in the world still do not have as good a network
of roads as did the former Roman Empire. The Romans were also particular
about a well organized transport system - well-known, for example, is Julius
Caesar’s regulation on the prohibition of heavy vehicles on the roads in urban
areas at night due to the loud noise. The most famous Roman road which has
survived until the present time is the road called Via Appia.
With the disintegration of large slave empires and the coming of the feudal
society, business was on the brink of decline, and that was why road transport
was lost its importance - stagnation in the construction of the road network.
And the invention of the steam engine and railway construction were
the causes of the further decline in road transport. With the birth of the car
industry (Henry Ford, 1903) an important new stage in the development of road
transport took place in the early 20th
century, and this tendency still persists.
Via Appia, Roman
Via Appia was the most important road
in the Roman Empire. Its construction
began in 312 BC under censor Appius
Claudius Caecus. The road bears his
name. Via Appia began behind the city
walls of Rome at the Porta San Sebastiano
town gate and stretched 195km
towards the city of Capua in Campania.
It served as a supply artery for
the army in the fight against the Samnites.
Later it was extended to the port
Bundisia, where the 15m columns stand
to signal the end the road.
ROADS IN THE CZECH LANDS
In the second half of the 18th
century the construction of
road networks were initiated in Bohemia. In mid 1746
Maria Theresa decided that the construction of roads
should resume. The construction was interrupted by
the death of Emperor Charles VI. and the subsequent
wars. At the end of 1751, an inventory of main roads was
drawn up and in 1752 the construction of other motorway
sections was started. In the mid-19th
century, a total
of 23 state roads and 372 district roads were registered
in Moravia and in Silesia . The massive development of
road transport and the ensuing development of the road
and motorway network necessitated the rehabilitation of
the road infrastructure in Czechoslovakia in 1918. State
financial support was required. Before the division of
Czechoslovakia in 1992, the total length of motorways
was 550 km and the length of Class I., II. and III. roads
was 73,000 km - in the Czech Republic itself, there were
380 km of motorways and 55,500 km of roads. Towards
the end of 1997 there was a total of 480 km of motorways
and 55,080 km of roads in operation,
and approximately the same number of
local roads- 6,460 km of Class I. roads,
14,270 km of Class II. roads and 34,350 km
of Class III. roads. The road and motorway
network in 2009 amounts to 691 km of
motorways, 360 km of high-speed roads,
5,850 km of Class I. roads, 14, 592 km of
Class II. roads and 34,161 km of Class III.
roads and other roads.
Vídeňská street in Brno
– the main road to Wienna
1910
1962
2009
G O I N G B Y C A R
Roads and Bridges
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“HITLER'S MOTORWAY”
What is the story regarding motor-
ways?
MOTORWAYS
Railway overpass of Hitler's motorway
near Velké Opatovice
Unfinished part of the motorway bank in
Brno-Bystrc
The directive for the construction of a motorway
across the former Czechoslovakia
first appeared in 1938 in Adolf Hitler's instructions
addressed to Foreign Secretary
Joachim von Ribbentrop. The reason was
the to create a direct connection between the economically significant town of
Breslau (now Wroclaw – Poland) situated in the German part of Silesia, and Vienna,
which happened to be part of Germany after it had annexed Austria. Motorway construction
continued until 1942. Many kilometres of Hitler's motorway have been
overgrown with trees and numerous motorway segments were ploughed under. Some
of the technical facilities and segments which were finished are well-preserved even
today.
Motorway pillar near the Brno Dam
FROM PRAGUE TO BRNO
The oldest motorway in the Czech Republic, which is currently in operation, is
the D1 motorway. The construction of the D1 motorway had been approved in 1938.
The original intention was to connect Prague with Sub-Carpathian Russia. But it was
not until 1963 that the government made the decision to begin building motorways
in Czechoslovakia. The original project no longer matched the requirements, so that
a new project was developed. The first segment of the motorway network, 21 km
long, opened in the 12th of July 1971. But it took until 1980 before the whole D1
motorway, stretching from Prague to Brno, was finally finished. The D1 motorway
was connected to the D2 motorway which ran from Brno to Bratislava in Slovakia.
Nowadays the D1 (segment Prague – Brno) is a part of the Pan-European Corridor –
Berlin/Nuremberg-Prague-Bratislava-Budapest-Constanta/Thesaloniki/ Istanbul. After
its completion, a part of the motorway will also become part of a significant
European route stretching from Poland to the south of Europe and from west to
east. The current D1 motorway is 377 km long (298 km in operation, 79 km in preparation).
Its maximum altitude is 655 m above sea level (at the 104km point) and
minimum altitude is 198 m above sea level (at the 307km point).
D1 motorway near Brno
The Czech Republic in 2009 possesses 690,532
km of motorways and plans further extensions in
the future.
Motorways and main roads Czech Republic: 1st
of January, 2009
Transport congestion on the D1 motorway, segment
Brno-Slatina as far as the Brno exits.
G O I N G B Y C A R
Roads and Bridges
MOTORWAYS AND MAIN ROADS
17
A Bridge - a structure built to span some natural or man-made obstacle – a body of water (river, stream, sea, lake etc.) or
terrain obstacle (valley, gorges, gills etc.). There are even drawbridges that are used to span different levels. The first
bridges were probably some primitive stone footbridges. Advances in technology enabled the construction of wooden bridges
(eventually with stone pillars) or rope bridges (Inca civilization). The Romans knew about the arch, so that they could build
stone bridges. But today we can build not only stone bridges, but also cable-supported steel bridges.
Road infrastructure is consists not only of roads, but also of other significant structures:
bridges, tunnels, overpasses, underpasses, water-conduit bridges, wildlife
crossings etc. You can see some unusual transport constructions in the landscape
which are also part of the road infrastructure. We are talking about types of
bridges, for example water-conduit bridges, wildlife crossing, which meet the requirements
for traffic safety.
BRIDGES *
Golden Gate Bridge
The Golden Gate, located in San Francisco, is one of the longest suspension
bridges in the world. Its overall length is 2737m and its span length is
1280m. After four years of work, the bridge-opening celebration was held on
May 27, 1937. The project cost more than $35 million and was financed by
bonds (in 2003 dollars its construction would cost approximately $1, 2 billion.
The bridge is painted orange vermilion because it provides enhanced
visibility for passing ships because of the frequent fog. More than 120,000
cars cross the bridge every day. It is the most photographed bridge in
the world and, in addition, it is considered the most sought-after place to
commit suicide. (According to statistics, more than 1200 people have
jumped off the bridge and committed suicide.)
TUNNELS * Lærdal Tunnel
Lærdal Tunnel, with its 24.5 km, is currently the longest road tunnel in the
world, thus surpassing the St. Gotthard Road Tunnel in the Alps which is only
16.7 km long. Using this tunnel, unlike other mountain roads in Norway, is
toll-free. (Norway, due to its oilfields, is among the wealthiest countries in
the world.) Nowadays we can observe a cautious attitude in society
regarding long tunnels, because
everyone is aware of the recent catastrophe
when 39 people died in the tunnel
under Mont Blanc Mountain caused
by a truck fire. The design of the tunnel
takes into consideration mental strain
on drivers, so that the tunnel is divided
into four sections separated by three
large mountain caves.
WEB LINKS:
www.infoglobe.cz/zajimavosti/
gotthardsky-tunel/
www.rsd.cz
www.ceskedalnice.cz
A tunnel - an underground passageway which
stretches under a topographical elevation,
sea, river or a city. It is used for road traffic,
rail traffic or for pedestrians. The first tunnel
was built in 1670 – this 158m long tunnel
was excavated through a hill of solid rock
near Beziers in France. Development of
the railways hastened the construction on
tunnels in the 19th
century.
THINK ABOUT:
Try to explain with your own words the types of roads in the Czech Republic and give an example on the map.
What are the main reasons to span natural obstacles?
Find out where the motorways and main roads in the Czech Republic are in located.
Explain why the transport congestion has increased on the D1 motorway.
G O I N G B Y C A R
Roads and Bridges
18
Since the earliest times, transport has had a strong impact
on both coastal and mainland areas. Transport has
called for the earmarking of suitable portions of the surface
for the construction of transport arteries, transhipment
stations, storages and other facilities which assist
transport to overcome various obstacles (mountains,
rivers, waterlogged areas, huge waves, steep and unstable
slopes, avalanche areas, etc.).
Urban areas have had to be adapted to cars as well.
Cars, if they aren't in motion, need large parking areas,
traffic stoplights and petrol stations. Other cars need to
be repaired, washed, or to be protected against climatic
conditions. Garages, parking lots, emergency stopping
lanes, petrol stations, service stations, car wash facilities,
and car ports occupy space not only within the urban
areas, but also the areas on their outskirts. Because
of this large demand for space, some human activities
have been removed from urban areas and have been
relocated close to road and motorway junctions. We are
talking about shopping centres ”parking lots” the locations
where people change means of public transport
(Czech abbreviation - MHD), petrol stations and car wash
facilities. The need for economy of space has led to the
construction of underground garages and multi-storey
car parks. In combination with assuring greater safety,
faster transport, overcoming obstacles more easily, but
also with the need for economy of space, the road transportation
system has led to the construction of tunnels,
bridges and many scaffold bridges.
Road transport, as well as other kinds of industrial activities,
negatively influences the environment during all
stages of its existence (manufacturing, operation and
recycling). That is why we are searching for comprehensive
approaches whose effort is to minimize this negatively
adduced evidence. Society oversees communication
networks, passes laws regulating toxic substances
and pollution levels and, with the help of road signs,
regulates traffic. Manufacturing in car factories is
strictly regulated so that no pollutants should escape
into the environment. Waste sediments dumped from
strainers and cleaners are reduced by means of environmentally-friendly
technologies. In addition drivers attempt
to use road
transport rationally
and to respect
the rules for
safe driving.
High energy consumption,
significant
adverse effects
on the environment
and small
numbers of passengers
per vehicle
are among
the frequently
mentioned disadvantages
of road
transport.
The Landscape* and Cars
Tunnel construction in Troy, Prague.
ENVIRONMENTAL RELATIONSHIPS
Let’s consider the positive and negative impacts
of road transport. The positive ones particularly
include the social benefits which are
related to personal transport guaranteeing
comfort, and, on the other hand goods transport
guaranteeing the necessary functioning of
economic activities. Construction of by-pass
roads also has a positive influence on reducing
pressure on transit areas.
Social benefits of transport (source: ECMT)
What is the relationship of road transport to landscape? What obstacles does man have to surmount to build
the necessary road transport infrastructure? Does road transport only influence the environment in a negative
way? Is it possible to build a sustainable road transport system?
G O I N G B Y C A R
19
The International Energy Agency (IEA) anticipates in its baseline scenario of further development of energy consumption that
by 2030 the world demand for petroleum will grow annually by 1.4 %. This represents an increase of 79 million barrels/day in
2003 to 92 million barrels/day in 2010 and 115 million barrels/day in 2030. Two-thirds of total petroleum consumption will
increase due to the transport sector. Petroleum still remains the dominant primary energy source. From the economic and political
point of view, the alternatives, such as renewable energy sources, will be developed very slowly. Globally, transport
consumes about 80 % of petroleum products, representing 98 % of the energy used in transport. In 2004 the world's daily petroleum
consumption was approximately 80 million barrels (1 barrel = 159 litre). Transport’s share in the total energy consumption
in the Czech Republic, as well as in the world, has steadily increased. In 2003 it was possible to observe a steady increase
in the energy consumption of transport. The largest share of energy consumption in transport is found in individual road transport
and goods transport.
ENERGY CONSUMPTION
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
The new report from the European Agency for the Environment
(2008) states that in all the member states of
the European Union the major source of air pollution is
emissions from cars and trucks. For the most part, the
following emissions are released into the atmosphere CO,
NO, NO2, SO2, hydrocarbons, particulates, ozone,
and some lead. Also, the production of CO2 has markedly
increased. Overall, however, air pollutant emissions have
been following a downward trend since 1990, primarily
nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide.
Water pollution is caused by the direct or indirect discharge of
chemicals, dangerous biological substances and microorganisms.
This contamination leads to a change in the quality or nature of
the groundwater or surface water, affecting the health and
status of the flora and fauna. Traffic accidents associated with
the release of dangerous or harmful materials being transported
are extremely hazardous. Leakage of large amounts of oil into
the aquatic environment is accompanied by an oil film, limits
the access of oxygen to the water surface, which ultimately reduces
the self-purifying ability of the water.
SOIL POLLUTIONWATER POLLUTION
The oil from environmental accidents has the same
effect as herbicides on most plant species. That is
why only plants with a low susceptibility to petroleum
hydrocarbons survive in affected areas. During physical,
chemical and biological processes the contaminated
soil gradually degrades and the contaminated
soil gradually self-regenerates. Oil and naphtha take
the longest time to break down (3 years); petrol and
petroleum degrade quickly (usually within 1-3 years).
Large cities may be exposed to specific weather situations, such as poor air flow with a possibility of inversion and the buildup
of a large amount of exhaust gases, which lead to the creation of smog that directly endangers people's lives. It is the chemical
pollution of the atmosphere. The word "smog" is an amalgam of the words "smoke" and "fog." According to its origin, there are
two types of smog:
REDUCING SMOG
• mixture of urban and industrial smoke
with a predominance of sulfur dioxide
• occurs mainly in winter conditions
with distinct ground-based temperature
inversions
• is also sometimes called London smog
(first observed in London) or winter
smog
OXIDIZING SMOG
• first observed in the 1940's in Los Angeles
• is produced in urban areas, sunlight has an effect on certain components of
transport emissions, particularly on ground-level ozone, hydrocarbon mixtures,
nitrogen and carbon oxides
• reason for its creation is the increased concentration of NO2, which due to UV
radiation divides into particles, and at the end of the reaction ozone is formed
(blue colouring of air), peroxyacetylnitrates, aldehydes and sulfuric acid
• is also called Los Angeles smog, photochemical or summer smog
G O I N G B Y C A R
The Landscape and Cars
THE SHARE OF TRANSPORT IN TOTAL POLLUTION
20
NOISE AND VIBRATION
The development of transport brings many negative impacts, including
among others, excessive noise and vibration. The long-term effects of noise
exposure may cause serious diseases of civilized society (hypertension,
heart attacks, stress, neurosis, pathological changes in blood pressure,
hearing loss, etc.). People don't respond as negatively to a permanent increase
in noise as they do to those sound frequencies which are detrimental
to them. However, such permanent exposure could have an adverse
impact on the brain. It is the people in large cities and industrial areas who
are exposed to this particular burden the most. The main source of noise
and vibration in urban areas is primarily ground traffic, and also dramatically
increasing car traffic. In the noisiest places noise levels reach up to
75 dB in the day time and 69 dB at night, and in the quiet places the noise
levels drop to 50 dB in the day time and 40 dB at night. The highest noise
readings were already traditionally found in noisy areas such as Plzeň,
Praha 3 and 10 , in Ostrava, Olomouc and Liberec.
Map of road transport noise readings in Brno the
day time (source: ENVIG, Ltd.)
LANDSCAPE DEGRADATION
Due to the expansion of road networks close to urban areas, agricultural and other types of land have been appropriated. This
phenomenon has also contributed to the reduction of the retention capacity of the landscape, has led to a loss of high quality
agricultural land, and to a loss of habitats of wild fauna and flora. Due to contact with acidic atmospheric deposits, emissions
and solid or liquid waste products, soil degradation is also a cause of the reduction of the fertility of agricultural land, and
the cause of contamination by undesirable elements and comConstruction
of road infrastructure results in the fragmentation
of natural habitats, and the dispersal of specific species of
plants and animals into smaller and more isolated units. This
isolation, a result of fragmentation, threatens the survival of
sensitive species. The process of habitat fragmentation affects
ecological processes on multiple levels - the functionality of
the habitat is limited by the reduction of its size, and the isolation
disrupts sequential activities in the ecosystem. Another of
the main causes of the fragmentation of habitats is, in addition
to agriculture and urbanization, the construction and use of
linear transportation infrastructure: not only roads, but also
railways and waterways. Fragmentation affects not only
the part of the habitat which is bounded by the linear structure, but according to the size of the construction, also the adjoining
strip, which can be several tens of meters wide.
Basically, fragmentation reduces the possibility of species migration. It also directly contributes to a higher mortality rate of
fauna, particularly at night during the summer months, when the species are attracted by the heat radiating from road surfaces.
Transport networks in developed countries divide natural locations into smaller, isolated segments and create barriers
between those segments. The segments are often not large enough for sensitive species to be able to survive there. Road
transport has also become a factor that directly
threatens the survival of many species in our
landscape. Bridges which span traffic routes are
generally considered places where animals can
cross roads safely. This ecological function of
bridges is dependent upon the size of
the bridges, but also on the details of technical
design modifications to the space under
the bridge. The construction of underpasses for
animals, with fences and ecoducts,(green
bridges) is among the most important current
precautions which has been undertaken.Subway for amphibiansEcoduct in Lipník nad Bečvou
Diagram of land appropriation due to construction of the Southern
Shopping Centre in Brno. (Source: www.mapy.cz)
G O I N G B Y C A R
The Landscape and Cars
21
Externalities are social costs, which don't pass through the market, their builder doesn't pay for them, and thus they are usually
a financial burden for the whole society. It is the transportation, which is associated with a number of effects that don't
pass through the market (that is why they are called external) but they cost the society money. As the traffic increases,
the negative impacts on the environment and health increase as well. These impacts are not only local (health impacts on people
living close to busy roads caused particularly by diesel particulate emissions and noise), but also regional, national and
international (especially emissions of greenhouse gases). Therefore, there is growing attention paid to how to reduce the negative
effects of transportation at all levels of its operation. State and local governments measure to influence the volume and
structure of transport are generally referred to as traffic control.
A common definition of sustainable transport is "meeting the mobility needs of present generations without limiting the needs
of future generations”. Generally, there is a consensus that sustainable transport should permanently contribute to the growing
socio-economic welfare without exhausting natural resources and damaging the environment. The European Ministers of
Transport in their proclamation of 2004 states that the sustainability criteria in urban areas vary among countries, as well as
among individual cities. We can distinguish three pillars of sustainability (economic, environmental and social justice), whose
goal are monitored by the sustainable mobility. The economic and environmental pillars are connected. Their approach is to
take the unacceptable costs and pass them on to the transporters, and to reduce the environmentally unfavourable impacts of
transportation on social welfare. The pillars of social justice and economic security are linked through mobility needs and
the redistribution of wealth within society. And the emphasis on ethical values and principles and the pursuit of intergenerational
equity are the main goals of the social justice and environmental pillars.
Of the anthropogenic (man-made) shapes
that are currently most controversial because
of their large-scale interventions into
the landscape, we can name overpasses,
arched bridges and towers. The current
trend, however, is the partial revitalization of
the landscape, so that these improvements
would be in harmony with the landscape.
TRANSPORTATION AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Anthropogenic shapes sprang into being after the construction of the D47 motorway
near Lipník nad Bečvou.
WEB LINKS:
www.euactiv.cz
http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu
www.zubrno.cz/studie/00_obsah.htm
Policie ČR: Přehled o nehodovosti. http://
www.policie.cz/
www.csopvlasim.cz/st anice/rady/
jezci.php
ANIMALS BEING KILLED ON ROADS
Vehicle-animal collisions are an issue on roads and motorways.
When vehicles collide with small animals, such as invertebrates,
amphibians and reptiles, the result is usually the death of these
animals. But the collisions with big animals, such as mammals or
birds, definitely endanger road safety (damage to the vehicle
and accidents).
Police statistics indicate that annually around 8,500 accidents
are caused by wildlife. Overall, most of the accidents occur on
Class I. roads – 0.5/1 km accidents, while on the roads of Class
III. – 0.04/1 km. The most accidents occur in
the spring with a fewer number taking place in
autumn, and the fewest in the winter. We are
talking about collisions with deer and wild boars.
Collisions with medium size animals, such as
foxes, badgers, hare, etc., usually don't cause any
extensive damage to vehicles, and, therefore,
they are not reported and recorded.
G O I N G B Y C A R
The Landscape and Cars
22
LEARNING ACTIVITIES:
7 Landscape fragmentation - methodological sheet
7b Landscape fragmentation - worksheet
8 Landscape and cars - methodological sheet
8b Landscape and cars - worksheet
9a Perishing animals on the roads (and railways) - methodological sheet
9b Perishing animals on the roads (and railways) - worksheet
22 Transportation and sustainable development - methodological sheet
22b Transportation and sustainable development - worksheet
The death statistics for invertebrate
animals are not very precise, because
these animals are very difficult to find
in nature. This applies, to a lesser
extent, to small vertebrate animals:
some of them are thrown off the road,
or die after some time, and some of
them are picked up by drivers and
driven away. A mortality survey of
animals (Hlavac, Anděl, 2008) on our
roads and motorways in lowland and
upland terrain is defined by the critically
threatened species (see table).
No. of critically
threatened
spe-
cies
MAMMALS 24
common rat, domestic cat, hedgehog (both
species), field mouse (all species)
BIRDS 61
whitewing, yellow-hammer,
common pheasant, common blackbird
robin redbreast, thrush
REPTILES 5
ringsnake
slow-worm
AMPHIBIANS 4 European toad
Tab.: Critically threatened species of vertebrates from the point of view of the mortality rate
on the roads in the Czech Republic
Although the relative mortality rate of animals (per 1 km of road/ unit of time) is
the highest on the motorways (except the blackbird), most of the animals perish on
lower category roads. This is evident mainly when we are talking about brown hares
and deer. When we take the entire road network into account, the number of dead
animals is so high that, for example, the number of hares killed on the roads is almost
twice the number oh hares born in spring. And the number of hares shot by hunters is
only one-tenth of the deaths of the hares killed on the roads. These statistics confirm
the significant impact of road mortality on the population dynamics of many species.
Measures to prevent the killing of animals on the roads (and railways) depend upon
driver vigilance, mainly in the evening and night hours, and periods when the younger
animals become independent.Badger killed on the road
European hedgehog
Among other measures we can mention the introduction of the most endangered
animals back into the wild. The specific example is the rescue
program of young hedgehogs which are not able to survive winter. Both
types of our hedgehogs (the eastern and western) are representatives of
hibernating mammals. This means that they lie dormant, a state of unconsciousness
associated with the lowering of their body temperature (winter
sleep). To do this they need to have accumulated energy reserves in
the form of fat. Hedgehogs need to weigh at least 700 g to be able to
wake up from their hibernation in the spring. Therefore, young and weak
hedgehogs have no chance of awakening. These hedgehogs are sought out
during autumn, and kept in suitable breeding conditions. In the spring they
are released into the wild again. Thus this program reduces the mortality
rate on the roads. Hedgehogs look for invertebrates as food on the roads
(mainly nocturnal butterflies) and are lured by the higher temperature of
the road's heated surface. Feeding of a young hedgehog
THINK ABOUT:
Considering where you live, document the impacts
mentioned in the text. What solutions would you
propose to improve the situation? What legislative
tools are used in this case? Think of the changes
which would occur in the landscape, if your municipality
decided to build a new road to your
neighboring village by constructing a road through
a nearby forest (Scenario).
G O I N G B Y C A R
The Landscape and Cars
23
Oil (sometimes also called crude oil or petroleum) is a flammable, oily liquid consisting of a mixture of hydrocarbons, in particular
alkanes *, whose chain contains mainly 5 to 35 carbon atoms. Extracted oil sometimes contains gaseous alkanes with
1 to 4 carbon atoms in its chain. Oil has a characteristic odor. It is less dense than water (the density of oil is 0.73 to
0.98 g / cm3, the density of distilled water is 0.99 g/cm3 and the density of seawater is 1.025 g/cm3). Therefore, oil slicks
float on the surface of the sea. Oil from different locations differs in its properties. Crude oil is divided into heavy, medium
and light, according to its density. Depending on the type of hydrocarbons, they are divided into alkaline, cykcloakane and
various aromatic hydrocarbons. The sulphur content in oil is also important. Westsiberian oil, which is produced in the Czech
Republic, has a high sulphur content, is of medium density and belongs to the alkanes group. Oil also differs in its color - from
yellow to green to brown or black.
Crude Oil Extraction
Where does oil come from? What about its origin? Are its reserves endless? How are oil production and environmental
protection connected? The following text will try to provide answers to these questions.
WHAT IS OIL?
Oil is one of the non-renewable sources of energy. Nowadays,
together with natural gas and coal, it is one of the main
primary energy sources. Oil deposits are located either in
Paleozoic or Quaternary sediments, along with salt water and
natural gas. Oil is the basic raw material in
the petrochemical industry.
PETROCHEMICAL INDUSTRY
The petrochemical industry is just the first stage
of the multiple uses of oil. One portion of the oil
is directed toward the production of fuels and
lubricants used for cars and for machines in
different sectors of industry. Another portion is
directed toward the production of plastic
materials, which are used for the construction of
body panels, interior paneling, insulation and sub
-components of the equipment in cars and
engines. And the last portion is directed to ward
the rubber industry and the manufacture of
rubber tires and other components, in particular,
hoses, flexible and soft casings and a number of
other things.
Crude oil extraction is usually
tied to the flat areas that once
were or still are on the bottom
of the sea. It is at the bottom of
the sea where oil has formed
from ancient remnants of dead
organisms (plant and animal). In
order to drill oil it is important
to create a dense network of
roads along which first the drilling
equipments and then, after the successful opening of
deposits, the drilling rigs can reach the appropriate
places. The drilling sites need electricity to drive
the pumps. It is also necessary to build a network of pipelines,
which can divert the extracted oil into local reservoirs.
From there, the oil is directed to collection stations
where it is pre-cleaned and pumped into long-distance
pipelines – the oil must often flow through thousands of
kilometers of pipelines to reach the petrochemical industry
processing plants. The oil passes through several
pumping stations, where the pumps accelerate its
movement. The oil drilling site is characterized by
considerable fragmentation of the original landscape
– island fragmentation (drilling sites), linear fragmentation
(roads, power lines and pipelines).
The equipment is highly vulnerable to natural incidents
and accidents involving leakage of the crude
oil which then pollutes soil, streams, lakes and seas
as well as groundwater. Similar catastrophes can
also occur along the transport routes of the pipelines
or along tanker routes. These catasthropes can
cause long term land and marine environmental poisoning.
Since natural gas occures aling with
the crude oil, it is, therefore, also collected, stored,
and carried away in the pipelines. It is used as
a fuel in businesses, homes, power stations, but increasingly
also in cars. When the places of consumption
are far away, or when the natural gas fields are
not very abundant, the gas is often burnt as side-
waste.
Colour variation of oil: from yellow-green to brown
G O I N G B Y C A R
24
Their layers are several meters thick. If there is a relatively
rapid decline in the seabed (again in the geological sense), these
rocks will be heated to a suitable temperature in the range of
60° C to 150° C. A so-called oil window is then created at depths
of 2200m to 5500m beneath the Earth's surface. If the temperature
exceeds 150° C, then we are talking about “burnt deposit”,
in which only gas + graphite occurs. If, on the other hand,
the temperature is below 60° C, there is only methane. Under
optimal conditions for the emergence of the oil window, i.e.,
under high pressure and without the presence of oxygen (in
the presence of specific bacteria and minerals as catalytic converters),
small droplets of oil, which are dissolved in the form of
an emulsion in the underground water, begin to arise. Subsequently,
the underground water transports these droplets of oil
through fissures into so-called “oil-traps”, where they accumulate
in the porous rock. In about two thirds of all the deposits
these are sandstones and limestones or dolomites. In order for
the oil trap to be functional, the presence of a so-called “hat”
or “umbrella” is essential. The hat consists of impermeable rock
which does not allow the oil to leak to the surface (shale, permafrost,
etc.). Oil traps can be of different shapes. All this happens
as a result of the high pressure created by the surrounding
rocks. The quality of the oil depends upon the amount of time it
takes the oil to form - for every 5.5° C (depth of 150-180 m),
the speed of the chemical reaction doubles. The older the oil,
the more hydrocarbons it contains and the less asphalt it con-
tains.
Oil is located in the upper layers of the Earth's crust often
in areas of continental shelves *. Oil reservoirs lay
beneath the impermeable layers, at depths up to 8 km
below the surface. It is possible to detect oil in many
types of rocks. Its accumulation is possible not only in
porous rocks - sandstones, agglomerates (pudding-stones)
and limestones, but also in igneous cracked or metamorphic
rocks, in the layers beneath the seabed, beneath
the frozen soil in Siberia, underneath salt deposits or
buried in coral islands, in karst cavities or in sandy caves.
OIL
THE ORIGIN OF OIL AND NATURAL GAS
There are two scientific, yet conflicting theories about
the origin of oil.
The inorganic theory origin of oil was proposed by Mendeleev
when he stated that the origin lay in the effect of
superheated steam on carbides * of heavy metals in
the days when they occurred near the earth's surface.
This theory can be supported by the laboratory preparation
of certain solid, liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons (for
example, uranium carbide), or by a continuous leakage of
methane from the Earth's interior. A simulation of this
leakage can be achieved under laboratory conditions (this
reaction has actually been verified in the laboratory) according
to the following equation.
4H2 + CaCO3 → CaO + CH4 + 2H2O
The organic theory, accepted by most scientists, assumes
that oil originated from the remnants of prehistoric animals
and plants. Similar organisms (sea grass, algae, plant
and animal plankton, micro-plankton, bacteria) live in
salt or brackish waters even today. According to this
theory, a large number of aquatic organisms, living on
the seashore, process nutrients brought by big rivers and
then reproduce and die. After descending to the bottom,
it may happen that at a suitable moment
(geologically speaking), the remains of these organisms
are covered by sediment from the rivers.
This produces parent or so-called source rocks,
mostly grey clayey sandstones and black shale.
THE ORIGIN OF OIL AND NATURAL
Element
(name and symbol)
Percentage by weight
[%]
Carbon C 83—87
Hydrogen H 11—15
Sulphur S 0,1—10
Nitrogen N, Oxygen O,
metals
trace amounts
Chemical elements contained in oil
OIL DEPOSIT DEVELOPMENT
The first people who knew about oil were the ancient Syrians.
They used it as a mortar. The Persians called it nephtoj, nephtaz
or nephta. The Sumerians called it nepht and the Greeks
naphtha. The Romans called it petroleum, and used it as a laxative
or massage oil. The English also called it petroleum, but
the Americans referred to it as rock oil, or seneca oil (after
the Seneca Indian tribe from whose territory the oil was extracted).
The word ropa (oil in Czech) is of Polish origin and
means “pus”. Technological development in the use of oil occurred
in the mid-19th
century, when Pennsylvania began drilling
oil the using distillation and oil refining processess. The production
of motor fuels from crude oil did not begin until
the late 19th
century.
G O I N G B Y C A R
Crude Oil Extraction
25
CONDITIONS FOR THE ORGANIC ORIGIN OF OIL
1. Migration paths of oil lead to geological traps.
2. The traps must be surrounded by thick layers (several hundred
meters) of porous rock - an oil reservoir.
3. This porous rock must be covered with impermeable rock
called “a hat”, to prevent the further migration of the oil.
4. Correct “geological” timing is very important. First the trap
must be created and then the oil can migrate.
MATTER OF INTEREST
Mining the oil sand in
Alberta, which was
once considered too
expensive and too
harmful to exploit, is
a business worth billions
of dollars nowadays.
Deposits of
a mixture of sticky
bitumen, sand, clay
and water are hidden
under several tens of meters of soil. After clearing off the top
soil, giant excavators fill trucks 24 hours a day and then carry
the bitumen mixture to refining plants. The bitumen is separated
from the sand and tree leaves in hot water, it then rises
to the surface, and in the end it is sent to the refinery.
The rest of the sand, water and bitumen is discharged into
a sludge bed. It is necessary to displace four tons of soil in
order to produce a single barrel of oil.
According to National Geographic, March 2009
CANADIAN OIL BOOM
In former Austria-Hungary
in 1910, a resident of
Gbely, John Medlen, was
digging a drainage ditch on
his land and he ran into
natural gas. In 1914
Medlen started drilling for
the gas. He died about
three years after his discovery
because he started
using the flammable gas to
heat his house, and due to
ignorance as to how to
treat this substance, there
was an explosion and his
house burned down.
Oil drilling in Gbely
BEGINNINGS OF OIL PRODUCTION IN OUR AREA
Currently, oil is
extracted via oil
wells. The drill bit
is usually fitted with
diamonds, or steel
pins, and rotates in
a curcular motion.
The drilling speed
varies according to
the hardness of
the rock from 30
cm/hr. to 60 m/hr.
Additional drill rods
are gradually attached
to the first
driving rod, and the
so-called “well
mash “ is injected
under the tunnelling
tip, which cools the head during drilling. At the top of
the borehole, there is a special pressure valve which protects
the oil from squirting uncontrollably. Along the sides
of the boreholes, there are steel drill frames, which are
cast in a concrete mixture, and which gradually narrow towards
the surface (e.g., 76cm on the top and 18cm at
the bottom of the borehole). After the successful discovery
of an oil deposit, the oil is usually drilled in three progressive
stages, known as primary, secondary and tertiary.
Drilling rigs
An interesting peace of information is so-called unconventional
oil, which is obtained by other than traditional
drilling methods. The sources of this type of oil are oil
sands (tar sands, bitumens), oil shale, biofuels, thermal
depolymerization of organic matter and conversion of
coal or natural gas to liquid hydrocarbons. Tar sands contain
bitumen, which is split by the cracking method. This
process is energy intensive. Currently there are relatively
large deposits of tar sands (Canada, Venezuela), and
probably very soon oil will be extracted from this source
as well (this type of mining is highly uneconomical and
non-organic, leaving behind waste tanks full of sludge).
The extraction of oil from bitumen deposits is expensive
and, in addition, the tar sands lie in northern areas of
virgin nature. To satisfy the demand for oil will be difficult
and the price of the oil obtained from these remote
locations will be higher. Oil shale is sedimentary rock
containing hydrocarbon carboid. Carboid is converted to
oil without oxygen through pyrolysis (heating at
450-500° C).
OIL PRODUCTION
Crude Oil Extraction
G O I N G B Y C A R
26
Primary method - natural gas, which occurs under pressure
above the crude oil, pushes the oil out of the borehole.
A maximum of 20 % of the oil is extracted in this way. The
gas pressure gradually decreases, so it's necessary to use additional
method to extract oil.
Secondary method - drilling pumps. Water, gas, air or CO2
are blown into the borehole. It is possible to extract another
5 - 15 % of the total amount of the oil. Then the final method
comes.
Tertiary methods - using steam injection, hot oil viscosity is
reduced, so another 5-15 % of the total amount of the oil can
be extracted.
An oil deposit is never exploited 100 %. For light oil the extraction
rate is around 80 %, while for heavy oil it’s only 5 %.
During the second half of the 20th
century, oil was increasingly
extracted from
the bottom of shallow
seas (previously
it was Caspian Sea,
and later the Gulf of
Mexico and the North
Sea). Oil platforms or
rigs, wonders of modern
technology, were
built for this purpose.
Currently, one of the options fro replacing dried up oil wells is to get the oil
from the bottom of the deep oceans. Such exploitation is more expensive
than drilling in the shallow seas and one oil company alone cannot afford
either the research or construction of the facilities necessary for this extraction.
Therefore, several oil companies have joined forces and are currently
funding drilling and construction equipment. An example is the Jack 2 in
the Gulf of Mexico. Studies indicate that this site is capable of producing
around 15 trillion barrels. If that is true, the companies would realize
a profit. Nevertheless, the possibility of failure is not out of the question.
Drilling pumps (Texas, USA)
The Statfjord B oil platform was built between 1978 –1981, and it is located
180km west of Songefjord and 185km north-east of the Shetland Islands. Its
base consists of 24 concrete sections and above them are situated four
hollow concrete towers. There is drilling equipment in two of the towers,
and the other two contain the necessary technical equipment (pumps, piping,
etc.). The upper part of the platform serves as a seven-floor hotel for
200 workers, offices, a refinery and a landing pad for helicopters. The distance
from the bottom of the platform to the top is 271m, which is only
about 30m less than the height of the Eiffel Tower. However, it exceeds its
weight by almost 115 times. The construction of the platform took place on
shore, where its parts were manufactured separately, and then it was assembled
on site. The platform is so stable that even the biggest waves and
strongest winds cause it to sway up to only 1cm. The Statfjord B drilling
platform produces about 180,000 barrels of oil daily, which are then
shipped by tankers. The entire construction cost was $1,840,000,000.
Oil Rig Hotel
Statfjord B oil platform
TYPES OF OIL PRODUCTION
Even the dysfunctional oil rigs do not need to be a burden
in the future. They could easily be converted into hotels on
the sea, which would be completely self-sufficient in terms
of energy. Sources of energy for their operation could be
wind, which blows almost constantly there, solar panels
and waves. Heating or cooling could be obtained from
hydrothermal vents (holes in Earth's crust already in existence).
Such hotels have been designed for the shallow
parts of the Gulf of Mexico, where there are about 400 rigs
- some of them have completed threir work in the terms of
oil extraction. However, hotels in the North Sea could be
interesting as well - fishing, transfer stations to polar regions,
etc.
Crude Oil Extraction
G O I N G B Y C A R
27
OIL AND THE FUTURE
M.K. Hubbert predicted this maximum, corresponding
to global production, for the 1970. Fortunately,
so far his prediction has not come true because
there are new oil field still being discovered, and
still improving methods for extracting the oil
(reserves in the North Sea, Gulf of Mexico, etc.).
Optimists say that mankind has oil reserves for
about another 200 years (the coast of Brazil, Cuba,
deep oceans’ drilling, the oil sands in Canada and
Venezuela, and other as yet undiscovered deposits).
Pessimists argue the opposite - all the locations
have already been discovered and the world is
riding for a fall.
M. King Hubbert's curve
It is very difficult to decide where the truth lies for
several reasons: 1) The unknown geographical distribution
of oil reserves, actually new oil fields are
still being discovered. 2) Perhaps in no area of
human activity is there such a distorted situation,
even lying, as it is in the oil production and consumption.
The reason is the politicization of
the issue. On the one hand, countries that produce
oil and are economically dependent on oil production
claim that there is enough oil left.On the other
hand, oil cartels that want to raise the price of oil
contradict these claims etc. Unfortunately,
the cartels’ claims may be proved by scientific expertise.
It is also possible that part of the sky-high
profits from oil is being used to deliberately slowdown
the research of alternative energy sources.
This question is answered with the help of the so called ERoEI Index (Energy
Return of Energy Invested), i.e. the price of energy obtained after deducting
the price of energy invested. From the economic point of view, the sources
with the ERoEI index of less than 5 are inefficient.
The table of the ERoEI Index shows us that oil (and, of course, the natural gas
which accompanies it) is a very convenient source of energy, currently hardly
replaceable. However, it is a finite resource, and sooner or later we will begin
to feel its absence. If the extinction of our civilization is not going to happen,
it is high time to begin an intensive search for replacements for oil. It seems
that the most promising are nuclear energy, solar power and nuclear fusion, if
ideveloped. Then there would be enough “clean” energy which would be inexhaustible
and which would not destroy the environment. Index ERoEI
Energy ERoEI
Middle East oil 30
Oil from oil 4
Nuclear energy 4—5
Solar energy 2—5
Hydropower plants 5—10
Wind energy 5—10
Coal 4—20
Biofuels 0,9—4
LEARNING ACTIVITIES:
11a Simple distillation - methodological sheet
11b Simple distillation - worksheet
21a Oil – Where it can be found and how much is left? - methodological sheet
21b Oil – Where it can be found and how much is left? - worksheet
G O I N G B Y C A R
Crude Oil Extraction
Currently, there are 85 million barrels of oil extracted every day. In
the near future, this number will rise due to increased consumption of
oil in China and India. So, we can expect that by 2020 oil consumption
will be equal to twice the current level. It is natural that we are interested
in the question concerning the future of oil. Oil has literally become
the blood of global industry as well as the drug of humanity. Try
to imagine a world without oil: no cars, the collapse of transport, agriculture
and industry. The means of production would be similar to
those used sometime in the mid-19th
century, but at the same time
there would be no similar infrastructure, so the society would have to
rely on the power of horses - again - but would have to deal with countries
with larger populations (who would be probably hungry).
The country that possesses oil eould be wealthy. There would surely be
wars for oil, food and water and the extinction of civilization would
appear inevitable. What then is the future of oil and thus of humanity?
In the 1950’s, M. King Hubbert, an American geophysicist, published the
theory of peak oil. According to this theory, every oil field is gradually
being depleted, so that the time dependence of the quantity of oil follows
a curve similar to the Gaussian curve (gradually increases, reaches
the maximum and then declines). The shape of Hubbert's curve applies
not only to one oil field, but to all oil fields on the Earth.
WHY IS OIL ECONOMICALLY SUCH A MIRACULOUS LIQUID?
Oil production and its prognosis
THINK ABOUT:
Map oil resources for the Czech Republic and draw their
path to the site of oil processing in Kralupy nad Vltavou .
Oil is a non-renewable source of energy. Think of its alternatives
and the advantages and disadvantages of their use.
28
Oil Transportation
In the mid-19th
century, when oil began to be extracted on a larger scale (Russia, USA) it was transported in wooden
barrels with the help of horses. The capacity of such a barrel was set at a specific amount, and since that time oil
has traditionally been measured in barrels*. Horse carriages were soon replaced by tanks and railway cars. Later,
however, it became obvious that even this form of transportation was inadequate, so it was necessary to adopt
a much more efficient way of transporting oil - pipelines and oil tankers.
PIPELINES
The main transport lines begin in the Arab states of the Persian Gulf (Saudi Arabia, Iraq,
Iran, Kuwait) and lead mainly to East Asia (Japan, China) and also to Europe. In the USA
a considerable amount of this material comes also from Venezuela. Significant oil fields are
also located in Western Europe in the North Sea. The production of the countries of North
Africa (Libya, Algeria, Egypt) and the Gulf of Guinea countries (Nigeria, Angola) is much less
significant in terms of the world's total oil production.
OIL EXTRACTION, CONSUMPTION AND TRANSPORTATION
BARREL
Barrel (unit) – is the name
of several units of capacity.
The name comes from
t h e E n g l i s h w o r d
barrel,,which also has other
meanings than cask.
The following are the most
frequent:
• bbl stands for a barrel of
oil
1 bbl = 159 dm3 = 42 U.S.
gallons.
• Barrel of beer in Britain
is equal to 36 UK gallons,
ie. 163.65924 dm3.
• Barrel of beer in the U.S.
is equal to 31.5 U.S.
gallons, ie.
119.240471196 dm3
Source: Geografické rozhledy
The first pipeline was 9.6 km long, and was
built in 1865 in Pennsylvania. Since then,
many and much longer pipelines have been
built, which daily carry huge amounts of
crude oil. A pipeline consists of pipes with
a diameter of 30 cm - 122 cm, which are
often fastened onto medium-height poles.
Sometimes, for different reasons, they are
buried underground and at other times they
run along the ocean floor. Pumping stations
are located at regular intervals, and they ensure a constant flow of oil at 1-6 m/s. In order
not to allow sediment to settle on the bottom of pipelines, steel “hedgehogs”, which clean
the pipelines, were invented to be carried with the flow of the oil.
G O I N G B Y C A R
Oil extraction, consumption and transportation
extraction
of oil
consumption
of oil
1 mm of the column height = 295 mil of barrels
1 barrel of oil = 159 litres
Dependence of countries on oil
supplied from other countries:
countries completely
dependent on outside oil
countries dependent on outside
oil
countries not-dependent on
outside oil
main export routes
29
SIGNIFICANT PIPELINES
1. Alaska (Prudhoe Bay - Valdez), 1278 km long, hostile environment
of Tundra.
2. Trans Arabia (Bahrain - Mediterranean), 1700 km long, leads
mainly through large deserts.
3. Big Inch (Texas - Pennsylvania, USA), 2190 km long.
4. Canadian Oil Pipeline (Edmonton - Montreal), 3787 km long.
5. Druzhba (Kuibyshev in Russia - Záluží u Mostu, CR), 5502 km
long.
Other pipelines important for the Czech Republic:
1. Adria Krk - Druzhba pipeline
2. Ingolstadt - Kralupy - LitvínovMap of Druzhba pipeline
All the machines and equipment which transport oil are highly
vulnerable to natural events and accidents. Leaks of crude oil
occur which pollute the land, water in streams, lakes and seas
as well as groundwater. Similar events occur along the routes
of pipelines or oil tankers.
OIL TANKERS
Oil tanker accidents result in long-term poisoning of the continental and marine environment, and result in the direct consequences
which affect the organisms that are dependent on the marine ecosystem. Disasters have long-term destructive effects
on the environment, they severely affect water birds, fish and other sea creatures. This is the reason why an oil spill should
be cleaned up as soon as possible; for example by using floating barges, which stop the leak and drain off the oil. Another
option is to sprinkle the spill with wood shavings, which soak up the oil, and after drying-out, may serve as a fuel.
The world’s biggest oil tanker disasters
LEARNING ACTIVITIES:
10a Simulation of oil accident and its consequences - methodological sheet
10b Simulation of oil accident and its consequences
21a Oil – Where can it be found and how much is left? - methodological sheet
21b Oil – Where can it be found and how much is left? - worksheet
THINK ABOUT:
Conclude from the diagram on page 26 which
countries have the highest production of oil and
the highest consumption of oil.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of
shipping oil by sea?
In 1869 oil was brought to Europe from the USA by a specially adapted yacht named the Charles. The Charles can therefore be
regarded as the first oil tanker – a ship constructed to transport oil. An important parameter of each ship is its capacity. It is
indicated either in DWT (dead weight tons - that is the maximum load in tons), or GRT (gross registered tons - 2.83 cubic meters,
indicating the total volume of the enclosed space of the ship). From the economic point of view, we conclude that
the larger the ship is, the cheaper the cost of transportation, but, unfortunately, the worse the maneuverability of the ship
and the greater the potential devastating consequences for the environment in case of a disaster. This is why oil tankers are
not berthed in ports; the oil is unloaded far away from the port into undersea pipelines. Currently, the Japanese build the largest
oil tankers. There are currently about 700 super oil tankers operating on the seas, (one of the biggest is the Happy Giant,
which has a draft of 24 m, a width of 68 m and a length of 486 m. Its capacity is 200,000 DWT). All in all, there are more than
6,000 tankers of different sizes and quality in operation, sailing under flags of many different countries. Despite the everincreasing
requirements regarding the quality of oil tankers (each tanker must now have a double hull), shipwreaks occur from
time to time and this is often followed by an ecological disaster.
G O I N G B Y C A R
Oil Transportation
Exxon Valdez oil spill, March 1989
Ship name Place Date
Amount of
oil leaked
Torrey Canyon Cornwall March 18, 1967 120,000 tons
Olympic Bravery
La
Manche January 23, 1976 no exact data
Amoco Cadíz
La
Manche March 16, 1978 234,000 tons
Aegean Captain Tobago July 19, 1979 300,000 tons
Exxon Valdez Alaska March 23, 1989 206,000 tons
Mobby Prince Italy April 10, 1991 82,000 tons
Braer
Shetland
Islands January 5, 1993 85,000 tons
Sea Empress Walles February 15, 1993 128,000 tons
Erika Brittany December 12, 1999 12,000 tons
Limburg Aden Septemeber 6, 2002 no exact data
Selendang Ayu
Aleutian
Islands December 8, 2004 2000 tons
30
Oil Processing
One of the first methods of oil processing – distillation- was developed by the chemist and
inventor Ignacy Lukasiewicz (1822 – 1882) in Polish Lvov. He was the first who managed to
separate petroleum from oil using distillation. He also constructed the first petroleum
lamp. Petroleum, as one of the distilling fractions of oil, was used not only for lighting but
also as motor fuel. In earlier times, the oil rose to the Earth’s surface. Later, the oil was
drawn from wells by a normal bucket.
The main skill needed for oil processing
was to master the process of repeated
oil distillation under atmospheric pressure
– rectification*. This process enables
us to separate individual parts of the oil
such as mixtures of different hydrocarbons
with different lengths of chains.
The first fraction obtained from oil is
petrol fraction. Petrol, which is used as
fuel for cars, is made from the fractions
called medium and heavy petrol. These
are modified in order to create an antiknock
immunity which is determined by
octane number*. For example, if the petrol
has an octane number of 80, it means
that this fuel is composed of 20 percent
n-heptan and 80 percent isooctane.
The octane number shows the anti-knock
quality of motor petrol. The standard fuel
mixture consists of n-heptan (octane
number 0) and isooctane /2,2,4 trimethylpentan/
(octane number 100). The octane
number is equal to the percent of
isooctane in the fuel. The higher the percentage
of isooctane the higher the quality
of the petrol and petrol combustion is
better. It thereby avoids knock. Earlier,
the antiknock agent tetraethyl was used
to improve the quality of petrol.
The main components of the anti-knock
agent are derived from mixtures such as
methylethercbuthyleter – MTBE, ethylcbuthyler
– ETBE, tercamaylmethyleter –
TAME.
Table of products derived from distillation of oil
Fraction
Approximate
boiling point
(°C)
Approximate
content of fraction
in oil (%)
Approxi-
mate
density
(kg.m-3
)
Number of
carbon in
hydrocarbon
chain
Petrol 70—180
20—30 700 6—12
Light petrol do 90
Medium petrol –
motor petrol
90—150
Heavy petrol –
motor petrol
140—180
Petroleum 170—250 5—15 800 9—12
Diesel oil, fuel
oil
240—300 15—25 900 12—20
Paraffin >300 >20
Mazut (black
oil)
Distillation
residue
40—50
950—
1000
25—35
Structural formula of isooctane
WHAT ARE INDIVIDUAL FRACTIONS OF OIL USED FOR?
G O I N G B Y C A R
The second oil fraction is petroleum. The flashpoint* of petroleum
which is used for producing light should be at least 25°C. The petroleum
should have a low viscosity in order for it to rise up the wick. It is
also used as fuel for low-turning internal combustion engines.
31
THE OIL PRODUCTS
Mazut (black oil) is a residue from
the distillation column in which the oil
is processed under standard pressure.
Further distillation of mazut under low
pressure results in asphalt.
Paraffin is originally a by product of
the production of lubricating oils. It is
used to manufacture candles and as
a waterproofing material.
Asphalt is used in the building industry
and especially for road building.
Diesel oil is made from the mixture of the primary petroleum
fraction and gas oil. It must be able to combust spontaneously at
the temperature which is achieved by air compression in the engine
cylinder. Summer diesel oil may contain a small quantity of
paraffin. But this paraffin cannot be contained in winter diesel
oil because it could solidify and block the fuel supply to the engine.
The quality of the diesel is determined by the cetane index*.
Diesel oil is often made with a cetane index of 45 to 60.
Alterntives to motor diesel are renewable engine fuels derived
completely from renewable resources. Very often such motor
fuels are made from modified vegetable oils and ethanol which
are created by the fermentation of glucose. Another possibility of
renewable fuel is biodiesel oil which is made from vegetable oils
– sunflower, rape and soybean.
WEB LINKS:
http://vydavatelstvi.vscht.cz/knihy/uid_isbn-80-7080-
619-2/pages-img/
www.poptavka.net/Poptavky-ESC332-stroje-pro-
chemicky-prumysl-tezbu-ropy-zpracovani-plastu
www.total.cz/lub/lubczechrepublic.nsf/
VS_OPM/6D15D5CB6E5E7884C125701C002CFD25?
OpenDocument
http://economics.webz.cz/kdy-dojde-ropa
www.petroleum.cz/svet-ropy.aspx
www.mnd.cz
Oil Processing
LEARNING ACTIVITIES:
12a Oil Is Not Only Petrol – methodological sheet
12b Oil Is Not Only Petrol – worksheet
20a The Price of Petrol – methodological sheet
20b The Price of Petrol - worksheet
The scheme of oil distillation
Oil products, source: www.ceskarafinerska.cz
THINK ABOUT:
Think about the scheme titled Oil
Products, which shows us most of
the oil products. Which of them do
people need in everyday life? Is oil
important for people?
G O I N G B Y C A R
32
There are many human activities that are closely connected
to transport; for example economic (extraction
of raw materials, farming, animal husbandry, development
and manufacturing of vehicles and its subsidiaries),
military (the priority is speed and safety), residential
(towns, as the centres of economic development were
established near roads and crossroads) and, of course,
cultural, because transport enables people to meet other
people from distant places faster and easier and to have
more time for their creative work. Road transport has
experienced the greatest development. Motorised road
transport started to be developed from the end of 19th
century and nowadays cars are the most widely used
means of transport. The car industry and everything
related to it makes up most of the world’s economy.
An enormous amount of energy, materials, time and
knowledge is directed toward car manufacturing,
safety, driving, parking and also toward dealing with
the adverse impact on the environment. And it is still
the most effective means of transport because of time
and human energy savings.
THE IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPORT
Automobile Manufacturing
Automobile manufacturing (and the production of other motor vehicles) needs not only qualified workers, but
also various materials. As we shall see, the greater part of animate and inanimate nature is in some way engaged
in the production of motor vehicles.
CAR DESIGNERS
The work of different people with
different professions is necessary
before people can use cars. As there
are fashion designers who are
interested in fashion trends and
styles, so there are car designers and
builders. These people decide what
kind of materials are the most
suitable for car manufacturing.
Materials are chosen for the safety of
the drivers and passengers and for
their comfort. At the same time,
materials enable the car to run well.
In the picture, we can see winning
design models of Ferrari with their
designers.
When comparing the automobile manufacturing in earlier time and today, we see a number
of differences , especially in the use of many more modern machines and assembly
lines.
Many people with many different professions are involved in the production of
cars. It is necessary to build towns and shops for these people, schools for their
children and to educate teachers, shop assistants and other workers connected
with the various necessary services related to areas such as housing, health care,
culture, entertainment, etc. From this point of view, the car is an inseparable
part of human society.
PEOPLE’S JOBS
G O I N G B Y C A R
33
METALS
Metals are irreplaceable materials
in cars – steel is used
for manufacturing the chassis
(body), engine, axles and
other mechanical parts. Zinc
is used for the protection of
the metal parts which are
exposed to the environment.
Copper is used for the production
of electrical components,
aluminium for
the lighter parts of engines,
transmissions and for
the production of wheels and
other components. Molybdenum
and wolfram are necessary
for the manufacturing of lighting equipment. The mining of ores
strongly impacts the earth’s surface due to the use of surface mining. It is
necessary to build a dense network for the ore’s transport to the smelting
works where the metals are extracted.
Surface mining seriously affects the landscape and leaves scares on
the landscape which are connected with deforestation and soil pollution. It
is often necessary to drain large areas of land and to reroute original river
systems in order to keep mines out of flood danger. Sometimes it is necessary
to drain the water from mines. Surface mining causes dust, river pollution,
and noise from mining and transport activities. Smelting works may be
sources of toxic waste water, dust, gas emissions and noise. Ore extracts
travel a long way before its final processing in smelting works. Metals are
extracted from many ores by using a huge amount of electric energy,
through a process called haemolysis. Aluminium, copper, nickel and other
metals are obtained by using this process.
MATERIALS – PARTS OF THE CAR
Automobile Manufacturing
TYRES
Tyres are an essential part of every car. They often influence
the safety of a car’s occupants. Tyres are made of natural
and synthetic rubber, soot and oil. The rubber components
(natural and synthetic) account for approximately 80 %
of the tyre’s weight. The remaining 20 % consists of strengthening
materials. The wheel, upon which the tyre is mounted,
is made of
special lightweight
alloys,
especially alu-
minium.
Animated and inanimated nature connected in car manufacturing
Contrary to the normal car, whose chassis is made of
steel, the body of a racing car is made of a special
plastic, called Kevral. This plastic has very special
features. It is very solid, inflexible and lightweight. It is
used for the manufacturing other things like
bulletproof vests for policemen and for the bodies of
planes and ships.
The processing of these metals is concentrated
in countries and areas with large amounts of
cheap electrical energy which come from renewable
resources (the Scandinavian and equatorial
countries). Lead, zinc, chrome and other
metals are made by combining different chemical
reactions with smelting. As we can see,
the production of metals requires a vast amount
of manpower, a huge amount of energy, transportation
of materials and labour power. All
these things together affect the final value of a
car. In addition, the production of metals pollutes
the environment with vast amounts of
toxic emissions, wastewater and noise.
G O I N G B Y C A R
34
Automobile Manufacturing
MATERIALS – PARTS OF THE CAR
GLASS
The car industry is one of the biggest consumers of glass. Glass for
windscreens and some other parts of the car is made from silicate and
silicate sand. Glass works are usually located near the sources of
the raw materials – silicate and silicate sand. The operation of a glass
works is energy intensive. The melting of the materials for glass requires
high temperatures. Previously wood, charcoal and coal were burned in
glass furnaces. Nowadays the use of natural gas has many more advantages.
This includes a reduction in the release of harmful atmospheric
emissions.
THE BEST INVENTION – STEEL MANUFACTURING
PLASTICS
Plastics are made from oil. They can replace some metal parts
and make the car lighter. This leads to lower fuel consumption,
greater speed and more safety.
Synthetic textiles resist wear and are easier to clean. Many parts
of the car interior and electrical system are made of plastics.
CLAYS
Ceramic parts such as insulators are made of clays. They contribute
to the functioning of the electrical system.
PLANTS AND ANIMALS
Not only synthetic materials, but also natural plant materials are
used for the manufacturing of seat covers and interior facings.
Animal fibres are used as well.
Car windows (windscreens), mirrors and lights are made of safety glass. The glass is composed of layers and, therefore,
the windows do not break into sharp pieces which can cut the occupants of the car.
Seats and steering wheels may be coated with various materials. Chamois, which is a type of soft leather, is used very often.
This material allows for a very good grip on the steering wheel.
The car industry has taken advantage of the many advantageous properties of plastics.
Various types of textiles are also used in the car, especially in its interior. Carpets are made from recycled textiles. Seat
covers are made from synthetic textiles.
Steel is made by the process of refining raw iron, by
reducing the volume of carbon and some other elements.
The steel is processed into metal sheets at
the steel works. The sheets are delivered to the car
company where it is cut into a variety of shapes. These
shapes are used to form the car body and are joined
together by spot welding. The body is covered with
a layer of zinc to prevent corrosion. The body is then
attached to the chassis by a strong steel girder.
The entire structure is placed on an assembly line and
other components are attached.
G O I N G B Y C A R
35
A recycle quota for passenger cars of 85 % of the car’s weight
was established by an EU directive. Metals, liquids, and
components which may be dismantled (which means larger
plastic components) are considered recyclable parts when
there are proven technologies which
allow for further processing. New
technologies such as those which allow
for the separation of materials from
wrecked cars have also significantly
increased the recycling quota.
The development of a new car includes several interconnected
activities that are made by professional car designers
What does recyclability mean?
Recyclability means that we can treat car components
that have already been used so that they can be used
again. Recycled car components and materials can be
used for the manufacture of pellets, furniture, glass
products and many other goods. The recycling rate of
a product is known as the fixed recycling quota. For instance,
Škoda cars are at least 85 % recyclable, and another
10 % can be used for energy. So, it is possible to
dispose of only 5 % of the car in the landfill.
ECOLOGICAL DISPOSAL OF THE CAR
LEARNING ACTIVITIES:
13a Where are you from Mini? The World of Components – methodological
sheet
13b Where are you from Mini? The World of Components – work-
sheet
14 The Car Registration Book – worksheet
16 The World Car Producers – worksheet
17a Getting Familiar with Manufacturing Cars at ŠKODA AUTO
a.s., Mladá Boleslav – methodological sheet
17b Getting Familiar with Manufacturing Cars at ŠKODA AUTO
a.s., Mladá Boleslav - worksheet
All the parts needed for the final assembly of the car are arranged in
a row in the car factory. The car proceeds on a moving assembly line
and all the parts, components and accessories are gradually added.
Once the car is finished, it is tested for possible defects.
Automobile Manufacturing
G O I N G B Y C A R
36
We have seen the largest increase in the production of cars occur during the second half of the 20th century. Are
you interested in how many cars are made currently? Who the largest car producers are? Which car companies
produce the most cars? Which company now manufactures Škoda? Which brands of cars are seen on our roads
most often? The following text is going to answer these and other questions related to automobile manufactur-
ing.
When the car is finally completed, there will be
the retailer and, ultimately, the final customer – the
car owner or driver. The customer pays as much money
for the car as was necessary to produce the car. This
price included everything from the extraction and
processing of the raw material, the production of components
and car parts and their assembly, the costs for
the construction and operation of the production plants
which are involved in the process of car manufacturing,
and the profit of the car dealer. Only then does
the owner sit in the car and drive on the road.
The operation of the car requires power which is provided
by fuel. At the car dealer, where car is sold,
the petrol tank is filled with as much fuel as it needs to
get to the nearest petrol station. Meanwhile, this fuel,
which has been put into the car, has undergone a long
journey from oil drilling all the way to the pump in
the petrol station. Now, it is pumped into the tank and
then passes into the engine, where the combustion releases
energy and supplies the car with movement and
speed. The fumes emitted through this process affect
the surrounding environment. People have had to invest
time, energy and materials in the construction of
the roads.
The Car Industry
Name of country
Number of
cars
1. Japan 11 563 629
2. China 9 345 101
3. USA 8 705 239
4. Germany 6 040 582
5. South Corea 3 806 682
6. Brazil 3 220 475
7. France 2 568 978
8. Spain 2 541 644
9. India 2 314 662
10. Mexico 2 191 230
11. Canada 2 077 589
12. Russia 1 790 301
13. Great Britain 1 649 515
14. Thailand 1 393 742
15. Turkey 1 147 110
16. Iran 1 051 430
17. Itály 1 023 774
18. Poland 950 908
19. Czech Republic 945 822
20. Belgium 724 498
World Total 70 526 531
The number of cars produced in 2008
AUTOMOBILE MANUFACTURING
The manufacturing of cars and other vehicles
has become the symbol of economic development
in the 20th century. Car production increased
rapidly, especially, in the second half
of 20th century. The number of countries producing
cars is increasing, but also the proportion
of each country's total output is changing.
Gradually it is leading to the shift of production
from traditional industrial powers to other developing
countries.
Japan, with its output of 11.5 million cars per year is the world leader in car
production. China produced 9.3 million cars in 2008 and the United States produced
8.7 million cars. In fourth place is Germany. We can see that for the first time in its
history the market for cars has slightly declined (by about 3.7 % in comparison to the
year 2007). Some countries (e.g. France, USA) have registered slight declines compared
with previous years, on the other hand, we can see the car markets rapidly developing
in other countries, e.g in Brazil, India or China. We can also expect a shift of car
production into these countries within the next few years. Everyday, the number of
customers in these countries is increasing and there is still very cheap labour whose
price is incomparable with developed western countries (or with the developed Asian
countries).
New Ferrari model – 458 Italia Model
which was developed in cooperation with
Michael Schumacher, the ex-Formula 1
driver.
The industrial city Wolfsburg is the headquarters
of Volkswagen. In 2000 a new
exhibition was opened at the car museum
Autostad. Every model made by
Volkswagen has its own exhibition.
The area reserved for Škoda is 650
square metres.
G O I N G B Y C A R
37
http://news.auto.cz/ekonomika/
http://www.oica.net
Because automobile manufacturing is one of the most important industries in the Czech
Republic, it has a substantial effect upon the Czech economy. The car industry in
the Czech Republic is characterised by technological improvements in vehicle quality
(lower noise, fuel consumption, emissions), a growing number of motor vehicles and
an increasing density of traffic. There are more than 5 million cars registered in the
Czech Republic. Within the last 20 years this number has doubled. All this has created
a negative impact
on the environment.
THE AUTOMOBILE MANUFACTURING IN THE CZECH REPUBLIC
Car make Number of Cars
1. TOYOTA 9,237,780
2. GENERAL MOTORS 8,282,803
3. VOLKSWAGEN 6,437,414
4. FORD 5,407,000
5. HONDA 3,912,700
6. NISSAN 3,395,065
7. PSA 3,325,407
8. HUNDAY 2,777,137
9. SUZUKI 2,623,567
10. FIAT 2,524,325
11. RENAULT 2,417,351
12. CHRYSTLER 1,893,068
13. B.M.W. 1,439,918
14. KIA 1,395,324
15. MAZDA 1,349,274
Tha Car Production According to the
Automobile Manufacturers
The largest car manufacturers
are: General Motors,
Ford/Mazda, Volkswagen
and Toyota. Altogether
they produce almost half
of all the world’s cars.
ŠKODA AUTO
WEB LINKS:
http://www.novinky.cz, Wednesday August
5th 2009
The average age of a car in
the Czech Republic is 13.6 year
On the last day of June 2009,
a total of 4,409,508 cars were
registered in the Czech Republic.
Their average age of a car was
13.68 years old. More than half of
the registered cars were more
than 10 years old….
…..Škoda, Fiat, Ford, Peugeot and
Renault are among the cars most
often still in use when older than
15 years. On the other hand,
the brands used the shortest period
of time are Alfa Romeo, Subaru,
Kia, Trabant and Toyota.
Taken from Dnešní Svět : Auta na Zemi, n.1, vol. 2006/2007
Automobile manufacturing has a long history in the Czech Republic, see the chapter on
History of Transportation. Škoda Auto has been building cars since 1925. Škoda Auto is
one of the country’s largest and most important businesses with an exceptional position
in the Czech economy. In 2007 Škoda Auto produced more than 620,000 cars and
posted sales in excess of 220 billion Czech crowns. The company employed 23, 500
workers in the Czech Republic. With its almost 7.5 % share of exports it has defended
its position as the top exporter in the Czech Republic . It also has played a key role in
supporting the 265 Czech subcontractors of components and services. In 1990, due to
not being able to keep up with world markets, Škoda Auto became part of Volkswagen,
the German car company which also produces the Audi and Seat brands.
Number of cars manufactured in countries around the world
Due to the wide range of raw materials,
components and parts
needed from many specialized
suppliers, the need for skilled
workers and vast sales opportunites
, the car industry is a driving
force in a country’s prosperity.
THINK ABOUT:
Explain which countries automobile manufacturing has shifted to and why.
Using your own words, describe the history of automobile manufacturing at Škoda Auto.
The Car Industry
G O I N G B Y C A R
The absolute
number of cars
manufactured
Picture and brand represents
the number of vehicles
produced in the country in
2005 (in millions)
The brand is directly
proportional to the value of
vehicles produced
Note: only countries with car production
higher than 1 million Number of cars manufactured per 10,000 inhabitants (2005)
Data source:
http://www.oica.netNo data
38
Oil is one of a limited number of
sources of fuels. It’s still considerable
reserves will be used up and,
therefore we are looking for new
ways to replace it. The growing
number of cars, even if they use less oil, will result in
still higher oil consumption. New oilfields are being
discovered in previously technically inaccessible places.
This has begun with the expensive extraction from oil
sands or on the bottom of oceans. The areas which
contain the remaining oil reserves are of great concern
to those countries, especially the USA, whose consumption
of oil is the highest in the world. Thirst for oil can
also create an explosive situation. Independence from
oil will allow for a freedom from this dependence on
oil.
Teams of experts continue to look for new, cleaner and
less oil-dependent energy sources for cars. At the present
time there are cars running on natural gas or ethonol.
Currently, there are prototypes for cars which run
on hydrogen or solar energy. There are also some cars
which use two or more sources of energy.
Car transportation significantly contributes to environmental
pollution. That is also a serious motivation for
finding alternative sources of fuel.
The modern world has enough oil for the next few
years, and we do not expect the oil wells to dry up. But
the demand for oil is still growing; today it is around 80
million barrels per day (1 barrel = 159 litters). Oil drilling
has shifted from the continental shelves to
the ocean bottoms, to the depths of thousands of meters.
That is more technically demanding and less safe
ecologically. Another possibility today is the mining of
oil sands, see the Chapter on Mining.
Visions and Predictions
Are the oilfields exhausted? Are there any new oilfields to be discovered? Will oil become more expensive? How
many cars are there now in the world? Where to go to find cheaper and healthier means of transportation? Is
there any way to get out of the labyrinth of dependence on oil and to find the cheaper and healthier sources of
fuels for transportation?
NEW SOURCES OF OIL
Fuel consumption is influenced by:
• engine efficiency
• driving resistance – friction, aerodynamics,
….
• driving style – driver
• terrain and weight of the car
• car status
The number of cars in the world is still growing. A great
boom is expected in the two most populated countries,
India and China. The world car park now consists of 800
million cars (in the Czech Republic there are 4.5 million
cars). Within the next 25 years this number will double.
Even in the developed world it will not be possible to
refuse individuals this means of transport, only to regulate
it. It is necessary to develop cars which have lower
fuel consumption and are more environmentally-
friendly.
THE WORLD CAR PARK
More powerful engines have been designed since the construction
of the first cars. Petrol consumption increased and
nobody thought about how to use fuels economically. But,
the oil crisis has forced car manufacturers to produce less
thirsty cars. The quantity of pollutants, which are released
into the air during combustion is connected with the high
consumption of fuel. Due to technological progress, 100 cars
emit less pollutants into the air today than one car did in
1975.
THE SECRET OF LOW FUEL CONSUMPTION
The resulting combustion efficiency to
power the car is only about 25 %. Most of
the energy is transformed into heat, as we
can see from this infrared picture which
shows the temperature field of a moving
car.
G O I N G B Y C A R
39
• Minimal air resistance. Air resistance can be reduced by
using an aerodynamic body shape. The ideal shape would be
that of a falling drop of water which would be the lowest
coefficient of drag.
• Low weight. A lower the weight means less energy is required
for car acceleration. The efficient car should be
made of light materials, such as plastic and aluminium.
• Chassis with the engine in the middle of the car. An engine
located in the middle divides the weight of car which
is then more stable at the corners. It also leads to a more
efficient driving style , which is encouraged by the low centre
of gravity.
• Limit the maximum speed. Drivers who speed to get to
their destination faster, sometimes do not arrive at all. In
order to protect passengers, the ecological car will, therefore,
have a limited maximum speed.
There are already types of cars which use less than 3 litres of fuel per
100 km. The main goal is a car which could get by with consuming only
1.5 litres of fuel per 100 km. Extremely low consumption levels could be
achieved if the car could meet other design requirements:
Prototype of VW –
petrol consumption is
1.5 litres per 100 km
The volume of emissions is a part of the technical documentation
of the vehicle. Part of the regular state technical inspection
of the vehicle (known as STK)
is a measurement of the amount of
fumes emitted. The certification
of the technical inspection is
marked on a sticker which is
placed on the motor vehicle license
plate.
Nobody knows, what ideas will be developed for car
manufacturing in the future. Maybe there are some
alternative fuels which have not been thought of
yet. That is the task for scientists, engineers and
technicians, to test innovative and new ideas. We
can only introduce some of possibilities.
DEVELOPMENT OF INNOVATIVE IDEAS
THE AIR CAR
Sometime in the future we might see cars which run on
compressed air. These cars could be equipped with small
compressors so that they could refill the air anywhere they
have access to electricity. Actually, the use of compressed
air would overcome the problems of hydrogen or electric
cars. Energy storage requirements for compressed air itself
are small, but total the storage space required is large and
heavy. The air must be compressed by using an internal
combustion or electric engine. This reduces efficiency and
so the air car’s consumption of conventional fuels
increases.
A fuel which is usable in an only slightly modified engine is
natural gas. Its world reserves are large and it could be 150
years before they are used up. Application is possible in
compressed form as CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) or as LNG
(Liquefied Natural Gas). Even though natural gas is a fossil
fuel, it releases only a small amount of emissions.
Currently the most popular alternative fuel is Liquefied
Petroleum Gas (LPG). It is a mixture of hydrocarbons obtained
as a by-product of refining oil. It is possible to convert this gas
into a liquid state by compressing or cooling it. As a liquid it
has a small volume. Converting a gasoline engine to LPG is
simple. Propane and butane are currently being used in
the transport of gas mixtures, but the question of fuel for
future cars does not deal with LPG.
This really interesting flat car is included in Guinness World
Records as the lowest car in the world. It is 48 centimetres
high. The car is very similar to Batman’s Batmobile. But the car
is also dangerous – its creator, Perry Watkins, forgot to think
about high urban curbs. Although the car meets the conditions
for operating
in traffic, it
is extremely
dangerous to
crash or roll
over in this
car.
THE NATURAL GAS CAR
THE LPG CAR
G O I N G B Y C A R
Visions and Predictions
40
The electric car still has not advanced very far. Heavy batteries need to be recharged for hours and a driving radius of
a distance of only 100 km is clearly insufficient. Its advantage is that electricity can be generated from emission-free
sources – from the earth’s core, the sun, wind and water.
Current electric car shapes and range per charge – from the left Venturi Fetish (2006, Monako, range per single charge - 250 km), Testa
Roadstar (2007, England/USA, range - 230 km), Lighting GT (England, range - 400 km)
THE ELECTRICCAR
Hybrid drive systems, which have found their way into production, could be useful during a transitional period. A car, which
runs on the hybrid drive system uses more than one source of energy. The word hybrid most often means the combination of an
internal combustion engine and electric traction. Hybrid drives take advantage of the different working condition of the vehi-
cle.
A serial hybrid drive – a combination of internal combustion engine, electric motor and battery pack – has been tested. For
short distances (driving around town) the car runs on a lectric motor. The motor is powered by a battery pack. For long distances
or when greater acceleration is needed, the car runs on an internal combustion engine. When the car is running on its
internal combustion engine the electric motor changes its function and starts to work as a generator. Also, when braking, it
produces electricity for recharging the battery pack. The advantage of the serial hybrid drive system is the possibility of
the combined use of each drive in the moment of its greatest efficiency. This ensures a reduction in consumption. On the other
hand, the disadvantages are a high vehicle price and increased vehicle weight due to the weight of the battery pack.
THE HYBRID CAR
Green Volvo
The carmaker Volvo has introduced a prototype car to
experts which runs on various types of fuel. Volvo
wants to present the efforts it is making to find different
ways of transport in the future. The Volvo V70 Multi
- Fuel is a prototype car which has been modified for
the use of five different fuels: a mixture of hydrogen
and gas or methane, bio-methane, gas or bio-ethanol
E85 and petrol. The gaseous fuels (methane, biomethane,
and natural gas) can be
placed into one larger and two
smaller tanks for a total volume
of 98 litres; for the liquid fuels
(bio-ethanol E85 and petrol),
a 29 litre tank is available.
CAR USING BIO-FUELS
The use of ecological fuel generates many controversial discussions.
Agricultural crops such as the following are used for its production:
rapeseed oil, corn, and sugarcane. One possibility is to
use bio-diesel which is made from rapeseed oil. Bio-diesel is biodegradable
and does not threaten the land or water. Therefore, it
is suitable for cars or chainsaws in protected areas.
The disadvantages of bio-fuels can be summarized as follows:
• The use of machines for planting, harvesting and transport is
a decrease in CO2 emissions by about 35 %.
• Emissions of nitrogen oxides are slightly higher than for normal
fuel.
• Intensive cultivation of rapeseed oil is not possible without
the use of fertilizers and protective equipment for plants. By
cultivation of monocultures is limited animal and vegetable
world.
• Cultivation of plants required large quantities of water.
• At a time in which food shortages exist in many areas of
the world it seems like a luxury to use agricultural land to
produce fuel. However, this need to be looked at in relation
to agricultural overproduction, e.g. in Europe.
Visions and Predictions
G O I N G B Y C A R
41
Hydrogen and its production
Hydrogen could propel environmentally clean cars in the future. Hydrogen production itself
is very demanding in terms of electricity. Hydrogen is produced by means of other
primary energy sources (fossil fuels, electricity from nuclear power, or electricity from
alternative sources). The greening of the energy depends on the ecological purity of
the hydrogen car.
Hydrogen is perhaps usable throughout the energy economy as a handy accumulator of
surplus electricity from renewable resources. Hydrogen is not a classic fuel, but an energy
vector or energy carrier. It is difficult to release hydrogen from water. To break this bond
you need to use a lot of energy. At times each power station has a surplus of electricity
which is stored and could be used to split water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen. By
initiating a reverse reaction of hydrogen with oxygen, energy can be released and it is,
therefore, usable.
HYDROGEN CAR
A Japanese automaker has started
producing a car powered by hydrogen.
It is the first commercially
produced car running on hydrogen.
This model, called FCX Clarity, uses
hydrogen and its exhaust is pure
water vapour.
Fiat presented the new
concept of an ecologically
clean car. It is the Fiat
Phylla – a small car which
runs on hydrogen and solar
power. The Phylla does not
emit any exhaust other than
water vapour.
Why not run on hydrogen?
The only practical way to transport and store hydrogen is in its liquid form. However, even that is tricky for re-fuelling.
The handling of hydrogen is problematic, but the advantage is that the only by-product of burning hydrogen is water vapour.
Currently, ways are being explored as to how to store hydrogen:
1. liquefied and stored in insulated containers
2. high pressure compression and storage in pressurized containers
3. stored in a solid state – in the form of light metal hydride
4. absorbed into porous materials having a high specific surface
The prototype hydrogen car has only used the first method (liquefied H2). This method is problematic, for liquefied hydrogen
requires maintaining a temperature below -250 °C which is very demanding in terms of energy. It says that liquefaction needs
more than 30 % of the energy which is gained by burning hydrogen. Moreover, it is subject to continuous loss due to evaporation,
which can be more than 1 % per a day.
The main disadvantage of the second method of preserving hydrogen (storage in pressurized containers) is the relatively low
density of hydrogen. The evaporation rate in pressurized containers is only about 1 – 3 %.
It would be better to store hydrogen in the form of metal hydrides. Almost 200 litres of hydrogen (under low pressure) can be
stored in 1kg of these metals or their alloys and are safe for people. This method is currently being researched. Containers of
light metal hydrides could be available at existing service stations. The main factor preventing the expansion of this system is
the high price of these compounds. This price reflects the complicated path that leads from elementary metal production to
hydrogen production, transport and to pressurization of the hydride. Significant reduction in the price of hydride, along with
the development of electric cars is a prerequisite for their establishment.
Fuel cells* are the source of energy for the car running on an electric
engine. The main limitations of this kind of fuel are the size and price of
fuel cells, which are now used only in submarines and the space programme.
The Czech H2bus, a hybrid bus running on hydrogen fuel drawing
power from fuel cells 48 kW PEM, has been put into trial operation
this year. The first hydrogen filling station in the Czech Republic was
built in Neratovice.
Normally, there are dozens of units of stationary fuel cells in use, which
act as the backup power supply for banks, airports, and hotels. Every
major automaker has its own prototype fuel cell vehicle. There are also
prototype fuel cells for laptops, cameras, etc. The present in fuel cell
technology could be characterized as a period of intense research and
development, demonstration projects and preparation.
CAR USING ENERGY FROM FUEL CELLS
Hydrogen powered bus, which
was developed in 2006 by
the Nuclear Research Institute
in Řež near Prague.
Source:
www.autobusovenoviny.cz
Visions and Predictions
G O I N G B Y C A R
42
LEARNING ACTIVITIES:
15a The Dream Car – methodological sheet
15b The Dream Car – worksheet
18 CO2 Emission – methodological sheet
19a CO2 and its features – methodological
sheet
19b CO2 and its features – worksheet
The various vehicles continue to be improved. Only the driver still remains
the same. It can be said that most traffic accidents are caused by human carelessness,
selfishness and ruthlessness. Only a small percentage of accidents are
caused by the car itself. What the perfect car of the future might be missing is
the perfect driver.
Already today, designers are trying to create the robot–driver. Volkswagen has
presented an automatic driver with three legs and three hands called Klaus.
The robot drives totally automatically, without human intervention and without
special equipment. Information for navigation on the road is provided by
a stereo-camera, a satellite navigation system and radar. These devices are
connected to an onboard computer which gives driving commands. Although the robot is not yet ready for normal use, some
components like the electronic breaking system and the collision avoidance technology could help people now. The problems
connected with the robot-driver are not only with the technologies, but also with legislation. The laws of all the European
countries state that the driver is responsible for the operation of the car. A robot cannot be held responsible. We see,
therefore, that the issues are related not only to science and engineering, but also to moral and ethical questions.
The human can move a reasonable distance by using his or her own muscle power. Leg muscles are used more efficiently when
riding a bike rather than when walking. Bicycles are ineffective only on steep inclines or in strong headwinds. To offset these
disadvantages, engineers have developed a special bicycle which is still primarily driven by human muscle power. Its auxiliary
electric motor is activated by the pedals and assists the rider. For example, if there is a 300 watt electric motor, an active
rider, by using the pedals, could contribute 200W, and, therefore, replace two thirds of the power. The more athletic the riders,
the more efficiently they ride. Bicycles using these principles have been made especially for operation in urban areas. By
utilizing an electric motor, a bicycle can haul cargo weighing more than 200 kg.
HUMAN MUSCLE STRENGTH AND THE ELECTRIC ENGINE
THINK ABOUT:
1. Assess which driving style factors negatively affect fuel consumption
2. Compare and evaluate the pluses and minuses of using bio-fuels to power cars.
3. Consider the reasons for the slow increase in the use of propane butane for cars.
4. Work with the table. If you consider the life of an engine to be 100 000 km, calculate how much fuel a car uses if running
on petrol and on diesel. According to the present prices of petrol and diesel, calculate the price of the fuel needed to operate
a car for 100 000 km. According to your calculations and differences in the price in the table, evaluate whether it is
more efficient to operate the car on petrol or on diesel? How will it change if the lifespan of the car is 200 000 km?
Type of
fuel
Power Engine
Consumption
(v l/100km)
CO2 emission
(v g/
km)
Price of the same
model with different
engine
petrol 75 kW 1.6 MPI. 7,4 176 500 000,diesel
77 kW 1.9 TDI PD. 4,9 130 550 000,Comparison
of CO2 emissions released by petrol and by diesel combustion
Visions and Predictions
G O I N G B Y C A R
43
Can technique prevent the failure of a driver? How can we increase the safety of the occupants of the car?
Car Safety
In the case of an accident, passive safety plays the most important
role. The kinetic energy of a car crash needs to be
absorbed so that it minimizes risk to the occupants. That is
why the car is divided into three parts: with the space for passengers
in the middle, which acts as a safety cell, and crumple
zones in the front and rear which are flexible. The car’s safety
design has a special structure; the critical parts of car body
are composed of rigid and fixed longitudinal and transverse
beams, profiles and also the columns are reinforced. Upon
impact the car body is damaged and absorbs a large part of
the energy to keep the passenger compartment from undergoing
significant changes.
ACTIVE SAFETY
In this group we can include technical components, equipment
and features of the car which can prevent or avoid
accidents. The most important of these is good brakes.
Although the current electronic systems are a great help for
coping with critical situations, cars equipped with an ABS
brake system, brake assistant, slip systems (such as ARS) or
stability control systems are better.
Even seemingly small things like a comfortable ride and
a good view on all sides, easy access to all drivers, they all
are very important or the active safety. The right temperature
can prevent sleepiness and a reduction in driver’s
alertness.
ARS-traction control
system prevents
wheels from
spinning by
reducing
power
PASSIVE SAFETY
Driveability
Every car must be stable enough for normal driving conditions.
It should have effective brakes and sufficient dynamic
characteristics – the ability to accelerate. Good and
well-functioning brakes can prevent many accidents. The
main goal of the car manufacturer is for the car to achieve
the shortest stopping distance on the every type of surface
and to be able to control the car while braking. In order to
optimize the operation of the brakes it is necessary to use
the appropriate tires and sometimes modern electronics.
Driveability can be influenced by the technical condition of
car, the quality of the tires and by the weight distribution
which determines the position of its centre of gravity. Understeer
or oversteer are given as mass per front and rear
axle.
The seat belt plays one of the most important roles in
a person’s safety because it prevents the movement of
the body during a crash. By fastening it we reduce dangerous
body movement. The use of airbags moderates
the crushing force at impact and prevents contact with
parts inside the car. Air bags should reduce the effects of
an accident. Seat belts have not lost their importance,
even in the time of air bags. Air bags are
just another support system and if
the driver is not wearing his seat belt
during an accidental release of an airbag,
the airbag can cause injuries. In
the case of adaptive air bags it is possible
to activate two types of airbags. If
the crash is not too serious and the passenger
is sitting close to
t h e d a s h b o a r d ,
the amount of air in bag
is reduced and his upper
body is struck with less
force. The length of
time an air bag remains
inflated does not depend
upon the degree of
the impact.
Designers ask these questions during the design process
of every car. The safety of the car is also the most often
asked question which the customer asks the salesman
when choosing a new car.
Cars are equipped with various safety features which
can save people’s lives in the case of an accident. But,
the car’s equipment isn’t the only important aspect of
safe driving. Compliance with safety regulations and
recommended rates of speed also affect the number of
accidents on the road. The ability of the driver also plays
a big role. Some drivers overestimate their abilities and
the possibilities of their car.
It is up to each of us as to what extent we take responsibility
for people’s lives and our willingness to respect our
environment.
G O I N G B Y C A R
44
Car Safety
LEARNING ACTIVITIES:
23a Safety Map – methodological sheet
23b Safety Map - worksheet
24a First Aid after an accident– methodological sheet
24b First Aid after an accident– worksheet
25 Reaction Time
During the development of the car, manufacturers conduct crash tests from different directions and speeds and do tests for
rollovers and for collisions with smaller barriers. Due to the physiological structure of the human body these internal tests are
carried out at speeds of around 75 km/h. Over this speed the risk of an accident is significantly reduced. Tests take into account
crashes which cause fatalities and serious injuries. Most tests are focused on frontal collisions, where the activity of airbags
and deformation of body can be evaluated. The second group of tests are related to side crashes, where they look at airbag
performance and the behaviour of the sides of the car and their influence on the safety of the passengers. Also included
are rear-end collisions and roll-over tests, which evaluate the risk of injury to passengers. Lastly are a series of tests related to
collisions with other objects, such as pedestrians or animals.
Dangerous energy increases with the square of speed
A car with a weight of 1 ton travelling at a speed of 90 km per
hour. it has a kinetic energy of 312 500 J. If the car travels at
double that speed, 180 km/h, its energy increases fourfold to
1 250 000 J.
The impact on obstacles (rails, other cars, trees) is then equal to
four times the work, which not only damages the car.
A driver should maintain a reasonable distance behind the vehicle in front of him, 2 seconds is recommended.
Driver reaction time is about 0.7 seconds if the car’s speed is 180 km/h (50m/s) the car is going 0,7 x 50 = 35 m. More time is
required for the brakes to begin to work. It means that if the driver wants to come to a complete stop when travelling at
180km/h he needs around 60 meters. Whether a driver can come to a stop in time also depends on road conditions. The driver
whose stopping distance is too short can do nothing.
Under bad conditions, e.g. rain, it is difficult to “estimate” the safe driving distance necessary between cars. This can cause a
chain of highway accidents. So an “intelligent highways” system is being tested. A computer located on the dashboard communicates
with sensors placed on the highway (analyzing weather, movement of cars, etc.) and in the surrounding cars. The system
automatically adjusts the speed of the car and recommends the distance to be maintained between cars. What emerge is
group of cars travelling at a constant speed. But the car is still operated by a person. It is still not possible for a car to be
driven without human involvement, because of the current laws.
Stopping distance has a quadratic dependence on initial
speed. The calculation of the stopping distance for vehicle
driver's reaction time= t1, constant technical timeout
brakes=t2, initial velocity=v0, the variable coefficient of
friction=f and so on.
General solution is
where g means gravity acceleration.
CRASH TESTS
THE DISTANCE BETWEEN CARS
( )
gf
v
ttvs
⋅
⋅++=
2
0
210
2
1
THINK ABOUT:
Indicate principles for controlling the car to increase traffic
safety in the city.
Specify the safety features and equipment which can be
classified as active and passive ones?
G O I N G B Y C A R
45
How the Car Operates
Mechanical energy can be easily changed in the Internal Energy;
but reverse conversion is needed in the engine. This is
what happens to fit the gas as the working substance because
gases can quickly give off and receive heat. The work of gas
which is done within the one event is small and if we need
the gas to do more work and for a long time then it is necessary
to convert the gas to its original state so the event can be
repeated. This is the ring event* which is a sequence of
changes. After this the working gas quickly returns to its initial
state. The size of the work of gas per cycle is estimated from
the content of areas located in the so-called pV diagram between
the respective curves.
The gas in the engine usually works in an enclosed space
(usually in the cylinder). The gas is formed after the ignition
of a small quantity of fuel droplets in the inlet air. The fuel
explodes and it produces large amounts of hot gas which
pushes the floating piston in the cylinder. The piston is attached
directly to a connecting rod, the other end of the connecting
rod is attached to a handle, the so-called crankshaft.
The piston pin and a connecting rod are two of the most demanding
mechanical parts of the engine.
A sliding up and down movement of the piston turns the crankshaft
which then turns the car’s wheels. For most cars, which
are front-wheel drive, the crankshaft turns only the front
wheels. However, in a four-wheel drive car it turns all four
wheels. Typical car engines have 4, 6 or 8 cylinders.
The movements of the pistons in the cylinders are timed to
move in line with the pistons in the other cylinders, all continuously
rotating the crankshaft.
Engine performance can be enhanced in several ways – by increasing
the volume of the cylinders or increasing engine
speed. This method is taken to the extreme e.g. in Formula 1,
where it is prohibited to use engines with a capacity greater
than 3 litres. Therefore by increasing speed it increases performance.
Modern cars use electronic devices for maintaining
precise timing in ignition and for the metering of fuel into
the cylinders. This improves performance and reduces fuel
consumption.
Does the steam engine give more to science than science gives to the steam engine? Is the internal combustion
engine – the most important source of mechanical energy in the world?
Most of today's cars are powered by the internal
combustion engine. This engine occupies a leading place
in the list of human inventions. Unlike the steam engine,
the internal combustion engine is compact and fits easily
into your car. Unlike the electric engine, the combustion
engine is able to power a car over long distances thanks
to the combustion of fuel. The internal combustion engine
achieves an excellent balance between the use of
fuel and its weight, has low maintenance requirements
and is reliable.
The key to the functioning of the internal combustion
engine was to manage the work of gas in the so-called
ring events. These engines gave rise to research into
how to use petrol in as effective way as gas was used
in steam engines.
Section of 4 cylinder engine
G O I N G B Y C A R
PARTS OF ENGINE
46
The dispenser is the heart of the carburettor. The petrol is fed from the petrol
tank into the float-chamber. The float is lying on the surface and is connected to
a needle. The float chamber and fuel jet are communicating vessels. If the petrol
in the float chamber is at the desired level, an additional supply of gasoline is
stopped. The fuel jet leads to the mixing chamber through which air flows from
the outside. In the air which flows around the jet, there is a vacuum. Due to this,
petrol is soaked and sprayed. The amount of emulsion of this fuel mixture which is
sucked into the cylinder engine is controlled by the butterfly valve.
The type of fuel mixture used divides internal combustion
engines into either gasoline or diesel engines. A diesel engine
is more efficient than a gasoline engine because it is able
to absorb and compress air at a ratio of 14:1 to 25:1. Diesel is
injected into the compressed air, which spontaneously ignites.
A gasoline engine compress air with gasoline and this
mixture can be compressed only at a ratio of 8:1 to 12:1.
Crankshaft
OTTO’S GASOLINE FOUR-STROKE ENGINE
The gasoline engine is the most widely used thermal machine in the world. The cylinder
head of a gasoline engine contains a spark plug and intake and exhaust valves. Both
valves are automatically opened at the appropriate time by rotating cams. The gasoline
engine is fed by an emulsion – a mixture of gasoline with air. This mixture is prepared in
the carburettor or is controlled by the electronic dispensing of mixture to each cylinder
according to the operating conditions.
CARBURETTOR AND FUEL INJECTION
The scheme of the carburettor and
mechanism of fuel injection - supply air
is shown in blue and fuel in green.
The scheme of four-strokes and estimation of pV
diagram of ring- events of gas in the engine.
Otto’s engine – gasoline
The four-stroke engine has 4
phases, after which the
whole process is repeated
How the Car Operates
G O I N G B Y C A R
47
How the Car Operates
PHYSICAL NOTES:
The first law of thermodynamics precludes the existence of a device
that would continuously work without consumption of any
energy. But it does not exclude the existence of periodically operating
machines, in which all the heat supplied is converted to
work. The reversible cyclic process is called the Carnot cycle*,
after its discoverer. Carnot proved that the driving force –
the work gained within this cycle is not dependent on the working
substance; its size is established only by body temperature,
among which heat transfer eventually takes place. The working
substance must move the heat to the cooler, otherwise the machine
cannot work. It is not possible to get they work cyclically,
every time the heat is transferred. This means that the efficiency
of machines is limited by nature. This fact reflects the second law
of thermodynamics.
Irreversible processes are all around us, e.g. friction caused by all work is converted into heat but the reverse (all heat is
converted into work) is not possible. Heat spontaneously transfers from warmer objects to cooler ones, but not conversely.
Therefore, this event is also irreversible.
In thermal machines it is necessary to dissipate heat to the cooler within isothermal compression; otherwise the device does
not work at times. This heat is unusable for work in the machine, therefore we call it heat loss. It is possible to say that heat
is a degradation of energy transformation; in thermal machines other forms of energy degrade the heat of the inner energy
of surrounding objects.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES:
26 The stopping distance of a car – methodological sheet
27 How to read charts of movement? - methodological sheet
28 The movement of the piston in an engine – methodological
sheet
29 Heating and cooling, how they cooperate with each other? –
methodological sheet
Engine work takes place in one cycle, so its operation is
uneven. Smoothness is achieved by mounting a flywheel
onto the crankshaft. To start the engine, the engine must
perform four-strokes; the crankshaft turns two times –
this means that the fuel is extracted and compressed.
Therefore, when it is started, the engine shaft rotates
the auxiliary electric motor. The efficiency of the fourstroke
engine is around 30 %. The rest of the energy is
unused. The main problem is in the back and forth movement of the piston. The piston accelerates constantly in one direction.
Then it reverses its direction and accelerates in the second direction. Every up and down movement of the piston,
at a thousand times per minute, consumes some energy which is supplied by the fuel.
DIESEL ENGINE
Diesel engine
This engine is usually four-stroke. It is similar to the gasoline engine, but there is not any
spark plug or any carburettor. There is a fuel injection pump. The construction of the diesel
engine is massive because it must be able to withstand huge pressure and so the weight is
heavier than a gasoline engine. This slightly limits its use. The fuel burns more freely and is
combusted more completely and, therefore, the diesel engine is more efficient (40 %). Also,
fuels can be of less quality and so diesel is used. As we said, the diesel compression engine
has a more favourable ratio and less demand for cooling.
The scheme of using energy of fuel for car
THINK ABOUT:
What are the advantages and disadvantages of the internal
combustion engine?
What kind of fuels can be burned in the internal combustion
piston engine?
G O I N G B Y C A R
48
Who Can Be a Driver?
Driving licence cannot be obtained by persons:
• with a mental disorder
• who are taking long-term medication which
affects awareness and concentration
• with some visual problems (colour blindness,
severe short-sightedness ..)
• with some physical problems
Driving licence with certain restrictions can be obtained by per-
sons:
• with visual problems – short-sightedness – which can be corrected
with glasses or contact lens
• with hearing problems – this must be marked on the car
• with some physical problems for which the car can be specially
equipped (e.g. by manual steering) and the car must be marked
Decree No 277/2004 Coll., paragraph 1, provides that
a doctor’s report confirming the applicant's ability to drive
is necessary in determining the ability to drive motor vehicles,
medical confirmation of the ability to drive motor vehicles
with the restrictions and pertinences of doctor’s confirmation
proving health problems for which the driver cannot
wear a seat-belt (the confirmation cannot be replaced
by the document on ability stated in the application form
for a driving license, because this concerns the doctor’s
record for fulfilling the restrictions to be accepted on
the course for obtaining a driving license).
Who may obtain a driving licence in the Czech Republic? What to do in case of an accident? What effect does alcohol
have on the concentration and awareness of a driver? What effects do drugs have on the concentration and
awareness of a driver?
Who may obtain a driving licence?
In the Czech Republic a driving licence may be obtained
by people who are older than 18 and who are physically
and mentally able to safely operate a vehicle on
the road. Every person must take driving lessons and
pass a driving test – even foreigners. One of the conditions
for obtaining a driving licence is an assessment by a
doctor of the applicant's medical fitness to drive motor
vehicles. According to the law, a person must be medically
fit to drive motor vehicles or medically fit with
restrictions (includes minor medical restrictions).
Stricter criteria are applied to professional drivers –
a part of their driving licence approval process includes
repeated medical certificates which contain
a traffic-psychological examination and an examination
by electroencephalograph.
Other licence holders are obliged to have a medical
examination during the six months before they become
60, 65 and 68 years old. After 68 they are
obliged to have a medical examination every two
years.
Correctly seen no. “74”, some visual defect no. “21”
One of the barriers in obtaining a driving licence is colour blindness.
Around 10 % of the population in the Czech Republic suffer
from colour blindness, or partial colour blindness. One of the disorders
of colour blindness is Daltonism (the failure in perception
of red and green). Men are most often affected because the gene
which is responsible for the development of the cone and its work
is situated on the X chromosome. In men the gene cannot be compensated
for by the gene from the second chromosome X. It is
women who very often transmit this defect.
G O I N G B Y C A R
49
According to § 207 of
decree No. 140/1961 Coll.
(criminal law)
(1) If you do not give first
aid to a person who is in
danger of dying or who is
seriously injured in a stiuation
where there is no danger
to yourself, you can be
punished by imprisonment
for one year.
According to § 208 of
decree No. 140/1961 Coll.
(criminal law)
If the driver of a vehicle who
after an accident in which
he was involved does not
give first aid to a person
who is serously injured in
a situation where there is no
danger to himself can be
punished by imprisonment
for up to three years.
Who Can Be a Driver?
INFORMATION RESOURCES
The compulsory content of first-aid kit is set by
the Ministry of Transport of Czech Republic No.
341/2002 Coll.
Sterile dressing No. 2 2 pcs
Sterile dressing No. 3 2 pcs
Sterile dressing No. 4 2 pcs
Triangular bandage 2 pcs
Sticking–plaster (tape) 2.5cm x 5m 1 pcs
Plaster 8cm x 4cm 6 pcs
Bandage roll 70cm long 1 pcs
Sterile dressing 5 cm x 7.5cm 1 pcs
Mask 1 pcs
PVC sheet 20cm x 20cm 1 pcs
Wrapped surgical gloves 1 pcs
Safety pin in anticorrosive treatment 2 pcs
Scissors 1 pcs
From 2010 there will be a change in the compulsory items –
the safety pin will be excluded and thermo-insulating foil will be
included.
FIRST AID IN TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS
The basic skills of the driver, besides driving and basic technical maintenance of the car, include
the skill to give first aid.
PRINCIPLES OF GOOD FIRST AID
After arrival at the location of a traffic accident first aid guidelines should be followed:
Ensure the safety of yourself and the injured – use a triangular safety reflector, use a safety
vest, with help of another person stop approaching cars, move people behind a guard-rail- if
it is possible…
Examine the injured – identify the number of injured people, find out whether they are able
to communicate or are unconscious, try to determine their injury.
Call emergency number 155, we use 112 only in the case of a large number of injured
people – the dispatcher can help with other tasks. The more exact and the more detailed
information we give, the better the help the dispatcher can provide.
Give first aid – according to your abilities and skills and with the help of the dispatcher give
first aid.
Check the injured until the arrival of emergency rescue – inform medics about the operations
you have done and about any changes in the health condition of the injured from your
arrival up to the time of emergency rescue‘s arrival.
In order to not make the health condition of the injured worse, we should not:
• Undress the injured – do not take the helmet off, except in the case of an inability to
breathe
• Return intestines back into the abdomial cavity
• Test the depth of a wound or put bone fragments back into a wound
• Remove protruding objects from wounds
• Put powder or ointments or disinfect liquids into a wound
• Give fluids or food
FIRST AID KIT
G O I N G B Y C A R
50
Drivers must not drive after taking alcohol, drugs or prescription medicine. Although the ban on the use of these substances
while driving is generally well known (like the statistics on road accidents due to their influence), the law is still broken.
STATISTICAL DATA ON ACCIDENTS CAUSED BY ALCOHOL AND SOME DRUGS IN THE YEAR 2008
• In 2008 there were 160,376 traffic accidents in the Czech Republic. From this total 992 people died, 3,908 people were
seriously injured and 24,776 suffered slight injuries.
• 6,602 accidents were caused by drivers who were intoxicated. Within these accidents, 79 persons died. This is around
4.8 % of the total number of accidents for the year and 8 % of the total number of people killed. (This number is the
highest in the Czech Republic since the year 2000.)
• In one month (June, 2008) intoxicated drivers caused 700 accidents and 37 people were seriously injured. 348 of these
accidents took place between 6 p.m. and 6 a.m. 173 of the accidents were caused by drivers younger than 25.
• The number of cases in which drivers were under the influence of drugs increased from 45 in 2000 to 109 cases in 2008.
This reflects the number recorded by the police in 2008, which increased 2.5 times from the year 2000. This significant
increase began in 2004 and more than half of these drivers were younger than 30.
• The proportion of the number of drivers affected by drugs (except for alcohol) during an accident has increased from 3.5
% in 2000 to 9.3 % in 2008.
Current statistical data on accidents on regions in the Czech Republic are on web pages of the Czech Republic police:
http://aplikace.policie.cz/statistiky-dopravnich-nehod/ .
THE INFLUENCE OF ALCOHOL, DRUGS AND SOME PRESCRIPTION MEDICINE ON CONCENTRATION
AND AWARENESS WHEN DRIVING
Who Can Be a Driver?
The effects of drugs are extremely serious, especially on young drivers. These drivers have had very little practice in
driving a car and with traffic. Young drivers also have little experience with the effects of alcohol and other drugs
and they are less resistant to them. They process the drugs more slowly and they have a lower body weight. Therefore,
even relatively small amounts of alcohol can cause a high level of alcohol in the blood and have a greater effect
than in adults. During adolescence there is also a greater tendency to take risks and to go beyond normal limits.
Alcohol and various drugs have different effects
on the awareness and concentration of drivers.
• can cause fatigue and sleepiness: cannabis,
opiates, hypnotics
• can cause aggression and irritability:
methamphetamine, cocaine, alcohol
• can cause feelings of persecution: cocaine,
hallucinogens
• can cause increased reaction time: cannabis
• can cause inadequate response to stimuli:
cannabis, opiates, alcohol
• can cause reduction of fear: hypnotics, cocaine,
methamphetamine
• can cause mistakes at traffic lights: alcohol,
cannabis
Sokolnice (3 June 2008) Motorcyclist and her passenger were struck down by a car
turning into a car park. The driver of the car was under the influence of alcohol
and did not see them.
G O I N G B Y C A R
51
LEARNING ACTIVITIES:
24a First Aid After an Accident – methodological sheet
24b First Aid After an Accident – worksheet
30a Who Can Drive a Car? - methodological sheet
30b Who Can Drive a Car? - worksheet
Some drugs can have an effect on the awareness and concentration of a driver.
Especially with over-the-counter drugs, users do not read the leaflet carefully and
are not aware of the potential impact the drug could have on his driving. In general,
if a driver feels sick and is aware of signs of a minor illness, such as the flu,
he or she should consider the reasons for the trip and should think about postponing
it.
All information about the possible effects and possible risks connected with taking
the drug must be written in a leaflet. It is also possible to find this information on
the web pages of the drug producer (e.g. www.zentiva.cz) or on web pages dealing
with health topics (www.anamneza.cz).
WE CAN DIVIDE DRUGS INTO THREE CATEGORIES IN CONNECTION WITH DRIVING
1. Their influence on the driver and his or her ability to drive is unknown – Endiaron,
Paralen, Ibalgin and all nutritional supplements
2. May have an impact on driver tiredness
and he or she should consult a doctor
about driving a car while using them –
e.g. Imodium Plus, Coxtral, Modafen,
Paralen Plus,…
3. They affect awareness and concentration
and they can affect the ability to
drive a car – Codein, Diazepan, Hypnogen,
Medrin, …
WEB LINKS:
www.onlinedata.cz/
zakony/247_2000.asp
http://aplikace.policie.cz/statistiky-
dopravnich-nehod/
www.volny.cz/ lk77/barvy/slep/
uko.htm
www.lekari-online.cz/ocnilekarstvi/
novinky/zrak-a-rizeni-motorovych-
vozidel
www.driverspraha.cz/download/
alkohol-pusobeni.doc
www.nemyslis-zaplatis.cz
www.autolekarnicka.cz/obsah-
autolekarnicky.html
www.chcizit.cz/1-598-alkohol-za-
volantem
www.zentiva.cz
www.diagnoza.cz
www.adiktologie.cz/articles/
cz/70/1353/Drogy-a-rizeni-myty-a-
polopravdy.html?acc=enb
Who Can Be a Driver?
THINK ABOUT:
How is the subject matter of the human body related to the topic
of driving?
Suggest an approach to teaching the topic „Who can be a driver?“
to pupils who would need to know more about this topic so they
can understand the timeliness of this issue for their lives.
G O I N G B Y C A R
52
K e y C o n c e p t s
ABS
An anti-lock braking system (ABS, from German: Antiblockiersystem) is a safety system that allows
the wheels on a motor vehicle to continue interacting tractively with the road surface as directed
by driver steering inputs while braking, preventing the wheels from locking up (that is, ceasing
rotation) and therefore avoiding skidding.
Alkane
are chemical compounds that consist only of hydrogen and carbon atoms and are bonded exclusively
by single bonds (i.e., they are saturated compounds) without any cycles (or loops; i.e., cyclic
structure). Alkanes belong to a homologous series of organic compounds in which the members
differ by a constant relative molecular mass of 14.
ASR
A traction control system (TCS), also known as anti-slip regulation (ASR), is typically (but not necessarily)
a secondary function of the anti-lock braking system (ABS) on production motor vehicles,
designed to prevent loss of traction of driven road wheels. When invoked it therefore enhances
driver control as throttle input applied is mis-matched to road surface conditions (due to varying
factors) being unable to manage applied torque.
Barrel
A barrel is one of several units of volume, with dry barrels, fluid barrels (UK beer barrel, U.S. beer
barrel), oil barrel, etc. The volume of some barrel units is double others, with various volumes in
the range of about 100–200 litres (22–44 imp gal
Barrier A barrier or barricade is a physical structure which blocks or impedes something.
Bridge
A bridge is a structure built to span physical obstacles such as a body of water, valley, or road, for
the purpose of providing passage over the obstacle. Designs of bridges vary depending on the function
of the bridge, the nature of the terrain where the bridge is constructed, the material used to
make it and the funds available to build it.
Carbide
In chemistry, a carbide is a compound composed of carbon and a less electronegative element.
Carbides can be generally classified by chemical bonding type as follows: (i) salt-like, (ii) covalent
compounds, (iii) interstitial compounds, and (iv) "intermediate" transition metal carbides. Examples
include calcium carbide, silicon carbide, tungsten carbide (often called simply carbide), and
cementite, each used in key industrial applications.
Carnot cycle
The Carnot cycle is a theoretical thermodynamic cycle proposed by Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot in
1824 and expanded by Benoit Paul Émile Clapeyron in the 1830s and 40s. It can be shown that it is
the most efficient cycle for converting a given amount of thermal energy into work, or conversely,
creating a temperature difference (e.g. refrigeration) by doing a given amount of work.
Cetane number
Cetane number or CN is a measurement of the combustion quality of diesel fuel during compression
ignition. It is a significant expression of diesel fuel quality among a number of other measurements
that determine overall diesel fuel quality.
Continental shelf
The continental shelf is the extended perimeter of each continent and associated coastal plain.
Much of the shelf was exposed during glacial periods, but is now submerged under relatively shallow
seas (known as shelf seas) and gulfs, and was similarly submerged during other interglacial
periods.
Distillation
Distillation is a method of separating mixtures based on differences in their boiling points. Distillation
is a unit operation, or a physical separation process, and not a chemical reaction.
Electrolysis
In chemistry and manufacturing, electrolysis is a method of using a direct electric current (DC) to
drive an otherwise non-spontaneous chemical reaction. Electrolysis is commercially highly important
as a stage in the separation of elements from naturally occurring sources such as ores using
an electrolytic cell.
Environment
An "environment" is the whole of surrounding things.Surroundings are defined by a central entity.
In ecology, environment refers to the surroundings of humankind. Generally, environment refers
to the biological, physical and social things on the earth or in inhabitable space outside the earth's
atmosphere.
53
K e y C o n c e p t s
Euroregion
In European politics, the term Euroregion usually refers to a transnational co-operation structure
between two (or more) contiguous territories located in different European countries. Euroregions
represent a specific type of cross-border region.
Flash point The flash point of a liquid is the lowest temperature at which it will ignite.
Fuel cell
A fuel cell is a device that converts the chemical energy from a fuel into electricity through a chemical
reaction with oxygen or another oxidizing agent. Hydrogen is the most common fuel, but hydrocarbons
such as natural gas and alcohols like methanol are sometimes used. Fuel cells are different
from batteries in that they require a constant source of fuel and oxygen to run, but they can produce
electricity continually for as long as these inputs are supplied.
Highway
A highway is any public road. In American English, the term is common and almost always designates
major roads. In British English, the term (which is not particularly common) designates any road
open to the public. Any interconnected set of highways can be variously referred to as a "highway
system", a "highway network", or a "highway transportation system". Each country has its own national
highway system.
Landscape
Landscape comprises the visible features of an area of land, including the physical elements of landforms
such as (ice-capped) mountains, hills, water bodies such as rivers, lakes, ponds and the sea,
living elements of land cover including indigenous vegetation, human elements including different
forms of land use, buildings and structures, and transitory elements such as lighting and weather
conditions.
Octane number
Octane rating or octane number is a standard measure of the anti-knock properties (i.e. the performance)
of a motor or aviation fuel. The higher the octane number, the more compression the fuel
can withstand before detonating. In broad terms, fuels with a higher octane rating are used in highRectification
the process of repeated distillation
Roads
A road is a thoroughfare, route, or way on land between two places, which typically has been paved
or otherwise improved to allow travel by some conveyance, including a horse, cart, or motor vehicle.
Roads consist of one, or sometimes two, roadways (British English: carriageways) each with one
or more lanes and also any associated sidewalks (British English: pavement) and tree lawns (British
English: verge). Roads that are available for use by the public may be referred to as public roads or
highways.
TCS
A traction control system (TCS), also known as anti-slip regulation (ASR), is typically (but not necessarily)
a secondary function of the anti-lock braking system (ABS) on production motor vehicles,
designed to prevent loss of traction of driven road wheels. When invoked it therefore enhances
driver control as throttle input applied is mis-matched to road surface conditions (due to varying
factors) being unable to manage applied torque.
Transport
Transport or transportation is the movement of people, cattle, animals and goods from one location
to another. Modes of transport include air, rail, road, water, cable, pipeline, and space. The field
can be divided into infrastructure, vehicles, and operations. Transport is important since it enables
Tunnel
A tunnel is an underground passageway, completely enclosed except for openings for egress, commonly
at each end.
Vehicle
A vehicle is a device that is designed or used to transport people or cargo. Most often vehicles are
manufactured, such as bicycles, cars, motorcycles, trains, ships etc.
Wildlife crossing
Wildlife crossings are structures that allow animals to cross human-made barriers safely. Wildlife
crossings may include: underpass tunnels, viaducts, and overpasses (mainly for large or herd-type
animals); amphibian tunnels; fish ladders; tunnels and culverts (for small mammals such as otters,
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TableofCross-CurricularSubjects
Cross-curricularsubjects
Personal development
Social development
Moral development
Civil society and school
The citizen, civil society and the state
Forms of citizen participation in political life
Democratic principles as forms of government
We are interested in Europe and the world
We explore Europe and the world
We are Europeans
Cultural differences
Human relations
Ethnic origins
Multiculturalism
Principles of social reconciliation and solidarity
Ecosystems
Fundamental conditions for life
Human activities and environmental problems
Humankind’s relation to the environment
Critical reading and perception of media message
Interpretation of the relationship between media
The structure of media messages
Perception of the author of media messages
Functioning and influence of the media in society
Creation of the media message
Working on a production team
TheHumanWorldandTransport••••••••••••
HistoryofTransportation•••••••••••
RoadsandBridges••••••••••
TheLandscapeandCars••••••••••••••
CrudeOilExtraction••••••••••
OilTransportation•••••••••••
OilProcessing••••••••••
AutomobileManufacturing•••••••••••
TheCarIndustry•••••••••
VisionsandPredictions••••••••••••
CarSafety•••••••••••
HowtheCarOperates••••••
WhoCanBeaDriver?••••••••••
Mediaeducation
Education
towards
thinkingin
Europeanand
globalcontext
Personaland
socialeducation
DemocraticcitizenshipMulticulturaleducation
Environmental
education
55
Literature
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BLAŽEK J., RÁBL V. Základy zpracování a využití ropy. 2nd edition. Institute of Chemical Technologies
Prague, Prague 2006. 63 p. ISBN 80-7080-619-2.
BRINKE, J. Úvod do geografie dopravy. Prague: Karolinum, 1992.
BRŮHOVÁ-FOLTÝNOVÁ, H. Trendy v dopravě [online]. Enviwiki,[cited 6. 7. 2009 ]. Available on
http://www.enviwiki.cz/index.php?title=Trendy_v_doprav%C4%9B&oldid=5934.
BRŮHOVÁ-FOLTÝNOVÁ, H., MÁCA, V. Evropský výzkum socioekonomických překážek udržitelné
mobility. The text was elaborated for Mobidays — Days of Sustainable Mobility Conference.
Centre for the Environment Questions Prague: Karolinum, 2007.
BŘEZINOVÁ, I., STARÝ, M. Ilustrovaná encyklopedie pro děti. 2nd edtion. Havlíčkův Brod : KMa,
s. r. o., 2004. 255 p. ISBN 80-253-0006-4.
CÍLEK, V., KAŠÍK, M. Nejistý plamen, ISBN 978-80-7363-122-2, Argo, 2007.
CpKP (2006). Dopravní politika České republiky pro léta 2005 -2013. 178 p.
ECMT (2001). Assessing the benefits of transport. Includes papers contributed by participants at
an expert workshop organised by the ECMT and the Swiss National Research Programme in
Bern on 26th November 1999. ECMT, Brusel
MIRVALD, S. Geografie dopravy. Pilsen: Faculty of Education, University of West Bohemia, 1993.
Policie ČR. Přehled o nehodovosti na pozemních komunikacích v České republice za rok 2008
[online]. [cited 6. 7. 2009 ]. Available on <http://www.policie.cz/clanek/statistika-
nehodovosti-178464.aspx?q=Y2hudW09MQ%3d%3d>.
ŠVANDOVÁ, K. Geologická stavba mikroregionu Podluží. Brno, 2008. 55 s. Faculty of Education,
Masaryk Univerzity.Bachelor’s thesis.
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G O I N G B Y C A R
— LEARNING ACTIVITIES—
Summary of methodological sheets and worksheets
1 “DRIVING A CAR” brainstorming – methodological sheet
2 “DRIVING A CAR” mind map – methodological sheet
3a Distinguishing signs – Are you well acquainted with them? – methodological sheet
3b Distinguishing signs – Are you well acquainted with them? – worksheet
4a License plates – Are you well acquainted with them? – methodological sheet
4b License plates – Are you well acquainted with them? – worksheet
5 Time line – worksheet
6 Crossword - worksheet
7 Landscape fragmentation - methodological sheet
7b Landscape fragmentation - worksheet
8 Landscape and cars - methodological sheet
8b Landscape and cars - worksheet
9a Perishing animals on the roads (and railways) - methodological sheet
9b Perishing animals on the roads (and railways) - worksheet
10a Simulation of oil accident and its consequences - methodological sheet
10b Simulation of oil accident and its consequences
11a Simple distillation - methodological sheet
11b Simple distillation - worksheet
12a Oil Is Not Only Petrol – methodological sheet
12b Oil Is Not Only Petrol – worksheet
13a Where are you from Mini? The World of Components – methodological sheet
13b Where are you from Mini? The World of Components – worksheet
14 The Car Registration Book – worksheet
15a The Dream Car – methodological sheet
15b The Dream Car – worksheet
16 The World Car Producers – worksheet
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17a Getting Familiar with Manufacturing Cars at ŠKODA AUTO a.s., Mladá Boleslav – methodo
logical sheet
17b Getting Familiar with Manufacturing Cars at ŠKODA AUTO a.s., Mladá Boleslav - worksheet
18 CO2 Emission – methodological sheet
19a CO2 and its features – methodological sheet
19b CO2 and its features – worksheet
20a The Price of Petrol – methodological sheet
20b The Price of Petrol - worksheet
21a Oil – Where it can be found and how much is left? - methodological sheet
21b Oil – Where it can be found and how much is left? - worksheet
22 Transportation and sustainable development - methodological sheet
22b Transportation and sustainable development - worksheet
23a Safety Map – methodological sheet
23b Safety Map - worksheet
24a First Aid after an accident– methodological sheet
24b First Aid after an accident– worksheet
25 Reaction Time
26 The stopping distance of a car – methodological sheet
27 How to read charts of movement? - methodological sheet
28 The movement of the piston in an engine – methodological sheet
29 Heating and cooling, how they cooperate with each other? – methodological sheet
30a Who Can Drive a Car? - methodological sheet
30b Who Can Drive a Car? - worksheet
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G O I N G B Y C A R
T e a c h e r ´ s b o o k
PhDr. Hana SVATOŇOVÁ, Ph.D., et al.
Graphic design: Mgr. Darina MÍSAŘOVÁ, Ph.D.
Published by Masaryk University 2012
2nd edition
300 copies
Print — Tiskárna Didot, spol. s r. o., Trnkova 119, 628 00 Brno-Líšeň
I N T E G R A T E D S C I E N C E 1
ISBN 978-80-210-5665-7
ISBN 978-80-210-5105-8 (čes. vyd.)
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