MASARYK
U N I V E R S I T Y
F A C U L T Y O F E D U C A T I O N
Comparison of ELT
coursebooks for lower
secondary schools in terms
of teaching grammar
Master's thesis
MAREK ANTAL
Supervisor: Mgr. Filip Pultar
Department of English Language and Literature
Lower Secondary School English Language Teacher
Training
Brno 2023
MUNI
P E D
COMPARISON OF ELT COURSEBOOKS FOR LOWER SECONDARY SCHOOLS
IN TERMS OF TEACHING GRAMMAR
Bibliographic record
Author:
Title of Thesis:
Marek Antal
Faculty of Education
Masaryk University
Department of English Language and Literature
Comparison of ELT coursebooks for lower
secondary schools in terms of teaching grammar
Degree Programme: Lower Secondary School English Language Teacher
Training
Field of Study:
Supervisor:
Year:
Number of Pages:
Keywords:
Lower Secondary School English Language Teacher
Training
Mgr. Filip Pultar
149
ELT coursebook, grammar, teaching, grammar
practice, comparison
2
COMPARISON OF ELT COURSEBOOKS FOR LOWER SECONDARY SCHOOLS
IN TERMS OF TEACHING GRAMMAR
Abstract
The master's thesis focuses on teaching grammar in English language
coursebooks for lower secondary schools and examines how grammar is
presented and practised in these coursebooks. The thesis aims to compare
three sets of coursebooks and determine how they differ in grammar
teaching and practice. The theoretical part of the thesis focuses on the role
of grammar in English language teaching, basic approaches and methods of
teaching grammar, and ways in which grammar is presented, taught, and
practised. The practical part compares the grammar syllabuses of selected
English language coursebooks. It compares the presentation and teaching of
past simple tense and the methods of grammar practice.
3
COMPARISON OF ELT COURSEBOOKS FOR LOWER SECONDARY SCHOOLS
IN TERMS OF TEACHING GRAMMAR
Bibliografický záznam
Autor:
Název práce:
Studijní program:
Studijní obor:
Vedoucí práce:
Rok:
Počet stran:
Klíčová slova:
Marek Antal
Pedagogická fakulta
Masarykova univerzita
Department of English Language and Literature
Comparison of ELT coursebooks for lower
secondary schools in terms of teaching grammar
Učitelství anglického jazyka pro základní školy
Lower Secondary School English Language Teacher
Training
Mgr. Filip Pultar
149
učebnice anglického jazyka, gramatika, výuka,
procvičovánígramatiky, srovnání
4
COMPARISON OF ELT COURSEBOOKS FOR LOWER SECONDARY SCHOOLS
IN TERMS OF TEACHING GRAM MAR
Anotace
Diplomová práce se zabývá výukou gramatiky v učebnicích anglického
jazyka pro druhý stupeň základních škol. Práce zkoumá způsob, jakým je
gramatika prezentována a jakou formou je gramatika v těchto učebnicích
procvičována. Cílem práce je porovnat tři sady učebnic a zjistit, jak se od
sebe liší z hlediska výuky a procvičování gramatiky. Teoretická část práce
se zaměřuje na roli gramatiky ve výuce anglického jazyka, na základní
přístupy a metody výuky gramatiky, a na způsoby, jakými je gramatika
prezentována, vyučována a procvičována. Praktická část srovnává
gramatické sylaby vybraných učebnic anglického. Následně porovnává
prezentaci a výuku minulého času prostého a způsob procvičování
gramatiky z hlediska typu úloh.
5
COMPARISON OF ELT COURSEBOOKS FOR LOWER SECONDARY SCHOOLS
IN TERMS OF TEACHING GRAMMAR
Declaration
Prohlašuji, že jsem závěrečnou diplomovou práci vypracoval samostatně, s
využitím pouze citovaných pramenů, dalších informací a zdrojů v souladu s
Disciplinárním řádem pro studenty Pedagogické fakulty Masarykovy
univerzity a se zákonem č. 121/2000 Sb., o právu autorském, o právech
souvisejících s právem autorským a o změně některých zákonů (autorský
zákon), ve znění pozdějších předpisů.
Brno April 20, 2023
Marek Antal
7
COMPARISON OF ELT COURSEBOOKS FOR LOWER SECONDARY SCHOOLS
IN TERMS OF TEACHING GRAMMAR
Acknowledgements
I would like to express my gratitude to my supervisor, Mgr. Filip Pultar, for
his patience and advice along the process of writing the thesis. I wish to
extend my special thanks to my family and friends for their patience.
Šablona DP 3.3-PED-anglicky (2021-10-22) © 2014,2016,2018-2021 Masarykova univerzita
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table of Contents
List of Tables
Glossary
1 Introduction
2 Theoretical Part
2.1 Coursebooks in ELT
2.2 Coursebook Evaluation
2.3 Grammar and its Role
2.4 Grammar Syllabus
2.5 Approaches to Teaching Grammar
2.6 Grammar and Methods
2.7 Grammar Practice
3 Practical Part
3.1 The Project Series
3.2 The Your Space Series
3.3 The Bloggers series
3.4 Comparison of Grammar Syllabuses
3.5 Comparison of Presenting and Teaching the Past Simple Tense in
the Selected Series of Coursebooks
4 Conclusion
Bibliography
Appendices
Appendix A
Appendix B
Appendix C
Appendix D
11
LIST OF TABLES
List of Tables
Table 1: Grammar structures at the Al and A2 levels according to CEFR . .79
Table 2: The number of controlled andfree practice exercises in the
selected coursebooks
106
Table 3: The number of mechanical, meaningful, and communicative drill
exercises in the selected coursebooks
107
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LIST OF TABLES
List of Appendices
Appendix A: Grammar syllabuses of all the selected coursebooks 124
Appendix B: An example of grammar presentation and practice from
Bloggers 2 134
Appendix C: An example of grammar presentation and practice from
Project 2 136
Appendix D: An example of grammar presentation and practice from Your
Space 2 138
14
LIST OF TABLES
Glossary
ELT
ESL
CLT
TBL
English Language Teaching
English as a Second Language
Communicative Language Teaching
Task Based Learning
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PRACTICAL PART
1 Introduction
English language teaching (hereinafter referred to as ELT) coursebooks are
essential for teaching English grammar to learners of all levels. These
coursebooks offer a structured approach to learning, which is particularly
important for those new to the language. ELT coursebooks provide learners
with various activities and exercises focusing on various aspects of
grammar, such as verb tenses, prepositions, and sentence structure. By
working through these activities, learners can better understand grammar
rules and concepts and develop the skills to use them correctly in spoken
and written communication. Furthermore, ELT coursebooks often explain
grammar concepts and examples that illustrate their use in context. This can
be especially helpful for learners who may need help understanding abstract
concepts or come from linguistic backgrounds that differ significantly from
English. Overall, using ELT coursebooks in teaching English grammar is
essential for providing learners with a comprehensive and structured
approach to learning and the tools they need to become proficient in using
English grammar.
ELT coursebooks have been a part of my life since early childhood. I
received my first English language coursebook in the first grade of primary
school when my parents enrolled me in the after-school English club. Since
then, as a learner and a teacher, I have used many coursebooks from various
authors and publishers. As a learner, most coursebooks bored and
overwhelmed me with ubiquitous exercises for practising grammar. As an
English language teacher, I see the pupils experiencing similar feelings
when using coursebooks and working on the same grammar exercises.
Throughout my teaching practice in private and public schools, I have never
had the opportunity to participate in the process of selecting English
language coursebooks and thus influence the overall teaching and learning
process. For these reasons, I began researching various coursebooks,
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PRACTICAL PART
determining how they differ and whether I can influence the learning
process by selecting the most suitable coursebook. I focused on the topic of
English language coursebooks in my bachelor's thesis, where I examined
how the English File coursebooks developed and changed from their first to
last editions.
This diploma thesis concerns the comparison of English language
teaching coursebooks for lower secondary schools in terms of teaching
grammar. The coursebook series selected for the thesis are Project, Your
Space, and Bloggers. The Project series is published by Oxford University
Press, and its author is a renowned British teacher and coursebook author
Tom Hutchinson. Although published in the Czech Republic by a Czech
publishing house Fraus, the Your Space series is written by British authors
Julia Starr Keddle and Martyn Hobbs and initially published by Cambridge
University Press. The Bloggers series is published by the German publisher
Klett, but the authors of the international edition intended for Czech schools
are Czech teachers Pavlína Hrabětová, Michaela Mikulková, together with
Karen Cryer. The first two mentioned series have been used by the author
both as a learner and a teacher and come from British publishers with
British authors. The Bloggers series was chosen as a representative of
coursebooks from Czech authors based on recommendations from some
English language teachers. As each series contains four or five volumes for
the lower secondary schools, volumes for the seventh grade were selected to
compare the presentation and teaching of specific grammar structures and
types of grammar exercises.
The thesis is divided into two parts and consists of a theoretical and a
practical part. Given the thesis topic, most of the theoretical part is devoted
to grammar, its role in the learning process, grammatical approaches and
methods, and ways of presenting teaching, and practising grammar. The
18
PRACTICAL PART
theoretical part also presents the theoretical background of coursebooks,
their types, their use in English language teaching and learning, and
coursebook evaluation.
The practical part aims to analyse how the coursebooks present new
grammar in terms of methods and then describe and analyse grammar
practice activities, their type, design, and frequency. Moreover, this part
focuses on the grammar syllabus of the aforementioned coursebooks. It
analyses the choice of grammar structures and their succession.
The research focuses on grammatical structures and rules presented in
the coursebooks through grammar syllabuses. Moreover, it chooses one
particular verb tense, past simple tense, and analyses its presentation and
practice in the three coursebooks. The result is an in-depth analysis of these
coursebooks' presentation and practice of the simple past tense and the
overall approach to teaching grammar.
The thesis aims to use comparative methods to determine the extent to
which the coursebooks differ in terms of teaching grammar, what methods
of presentation and teaching of grammar are used in the coursebooks,
whether controlled or free grammar practice is dominant, whether the
grammatical syllabuses of the coursebooks differ, and to discuss to what
extent these differences can affect the overall learning process.
The specific categories the practical part focuses on in the analysis of
the coursebooks include grammar syllabuses, methods of presenting new
grammar, types of grammar practice activities, design of grammar practice
activities and frequency of grammar practice activities.
The research questions include:
• How do the coursebooks differ in terms of teaching grammar?
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PRACTICAL PART
• What methods of presentation and teaching of grammar are
used in the coursebooks?
• Is controlled or free grammar practice dominant in the
coursebooks?
• Do the grammatical syllabuses of the coursebooks differ?
The ultimate goal of the thesis is to discuss to what extent the
differences might affect the overall learning process.
20
PRACTICAL PART
2 Theoretical Part
2.1 Coursebooks in ELT
This chapter discusses the fundamental concepts regarding the terminology
and use of coursebooks in ELT and their evaluation. A clear understanding
of these principles is crucial for comprehending their significance as they
form the basis of the thesis and other related works.
2.1.1 Defining a Coursebook
The terms coursebook and textbook are frequently used interchangeably
despite their slight differences in meaning and form. Cambridge Dictionary
defines a coursebook as "A book used by learners when they do a particular
course of study", while Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary describes it
as "A book for studying from, used regularly on a particular course of
study". In contrast, a textbook is defined as "A book that contains detailed
information about a subject for people who are studying that subject" by
Cambridge Dictionary (n.d.) and "A book that teaches a particular subject
and that is used especially in schools and colleges" by Oxford Online
Dictionary (n.d.).
Although the usage of these terms remains inconsistent among
methodologists such as Palmer, Harmer, and Thornbury, the term
coursebook is more frequently utilized. This is likely due to its complexity,
as the word 'course' suggests that it encompasses all the materials required
for an English course. Therefore, the term coursebook will be used in this
thesis to ensure consistency,
According to the definitions provided, ELT coursebooks aim to equip
learners with the essential knowledge of the English language, language
21
PRACTICAL PART
skills, and vital information about English-speaking countries. Additionally,
it prepares learners to communicate effectively with individuals from
English-speaking countries and diverse cultural backgrounds.
2.1.2 The Role of Coursebooks in ELT
The utilization of coursebooks is a highly conspicuous aspect of a teacher's
methodology and can significantly impact on the overall syllabus of a
course. Throughout the years, there has been a discussion around the
usefulness, importance, and function of coursebooks in English Language
Teaching (ELT) classrooms. Several authors, including Allwright (1981)
and Harmer (2007), have contributed to this debate. The primary query
remains whether coursebooks aid learners in attaining better outcomes.
O'Neill (1982) outlines four reasons supporting the use of coursebooks in
ELT lessons. The justifications are:
• A large portion of a coursebook's material can be suitable for
learners' needs, even if not explicitly designed for them.
• Coursebooks allow learners to look ahead to what they are going to
do, or to look back and refresh what they have done. They remove
the element of a surprise in learners' expectations.
• Coursebooks have the practical aspect of providing material which
is well-presented, and which would be possible to replace by
teachers only at high cost in terms of both money and the time.
• Well-designed coursebooks allow both teachers and learners for
improvisation and adaptation, including spontaneous interaction in
the class. (O'Neill, 1982)
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PRACTICAL PART
2.1.3 Use of Coursebooks in ELT
In English language teaching (ELT) classrooms, coursebooks have both
advantages and disadvantages. Some authors argue that coursebooks are an
indispensable resource that plays a positive and crucial role in teaching and
learning English. For instance, O'Neill (1982) states that since language is a
means of generating spontaneous communication, the classroom requires
spontaneous, creative interaction. Moreover, diverse groups of English
language learners have similar core needs regardless of their learning goals,
conditions, or culture. Therefore, coursebooks should be accessible and
adaptable to diverse teaching styles, learners, and cultures. Ranalli (2003)
supports O'Neill's argument and provides an example of the creation of a
Global Coursebook, which can be used worldwide by learners at a particular
age and level.
Coursebooks offer teachers a range of resources, including materials
and activities, as well as supplementary resources like audio CDs,
video/DVD materials, and interactive software. For learners, coursebooks
serve as a reference for grammar, pronunciation, and vocabulary revision
and as a means of language control and measuring progress as they
progressively complete the units. Furthermore, coursebooks usually provide
well-detailed and coherent syllabuses that guide inexperienced teachers
through the lessons and lesson plans, thereby saving them time.
However, opponents of coursebooks argue that their coverage of
language points is often superficial and limited. While coursebooks can be
an essential teaching aid, they cannot determine a language course's entire
content and outcome (Allwright, 1981). Despite this, coursebooks remain an
essential source of information for both teachers and learners.
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PRACTICAL PART
2.1.4 Types of Coursebooks
Coursebooks come in various forms, with many ways to categorize them.
However, there is no definitive method for categorization. Grant (1990)
notes that teachers often have their own approaches to categorizing
coursebooks. For instance, he proposes categories such as learner-centred
and teacher-centred materials, materials categorized by the language of
instruction, the aim of the materials, the specific type of English, and others.
Grant suggests two broad categories for coursebooks: traditional and
communicative. However, he acknowledges that it is not always possible to
classify a coursebook as belonging solely to one of these categories.
Traditional coursebooks aim to teach language as a system, focusing on
grammar rules, vocabulary lists, and sentence structures practised through
mechanical drills and exercises. This approach aligns with the grammartranslation
and audio-lingual methods, both of which emphasize the study of
grammar rules and the repetition of language patterns.
The theoretical perspective of behaviourism posits that language
learning results from habit formation through reinforcement and repetition,
which aligns with the traditional approach to teaching language. In contrast,
constructivism emphasizes the importance of learners actively constructing
their understanding of language through meaningful experiences and social
interactions, leading to a more communicative and task-based approach to
language learning.
Overall, the traditional approach to language teaching emphasizes
language as a set of rules and structures to be learned and practised, with
less emphasis on communicative competence and real-life situations.
The following list of characteristics is based on Grant's definition of
traditional coursebooks. These coursebooks:
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PRACTICAL PART
• emphasise the forms, or patterns, of language (the grammar)
more than the communicative functions of language
• focus on reading and writing activities
• use a great deal of L I (speaker's first language)
• emphasise the importance of accuracy
• focus rather narrowly on the syllabus and examinations
Despite their user-friendliness for teachers and learners, traditional
coursebooks are often criticized for their limited effectiveness in promoting
language use and communication. These materials tend to prioritize
teaching grammar as a system, which may result in learners acquiring a
theoretical understanding of the language but being unable to apply it in
practice.
In contrast, proponents of communicative coursebooks, such as Grant
(1987), argue that these materials offer valuable opportunities for learners to
use the language in meaningful contexts within the classroom. This
approach can serve as a steppingstone towards real-life language use by
allowing learners to practise and refine their communicative skills in a
supportive environment. Grant states that the communicative coursebooks
try to create "opportunities for the students to use the language in the
classroom, as a sort of 'halfway house' before using it in real life" (Grant,
1987, p.13).
Although communicative coursebooks might vary a lot, the
characteristics they all should have in common, according to Grant, are as
follows:
• emphasis on the communicative functions of language
• reflection on students'needs
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PRACTICAL PART
• emphasis on four language skills and good balance among
them
• reflection on the authentic language of everyday life
• encouraging working in groups or pairs
• emphasis on fluency and not only on accuracy (Grant, 1987,
p.13)
Grant argues that traditional methods of teaching English might not
result in learners being able to use the language effectively in everyday life.
He proposes several communicative activities as examples of how learners
can develop language skills that can be applied in real-life situations,
including listening to authentic language, information-gap exercises, reading
for specific information, and writing in real-life situations. These activities
are now commonly incorporated in modern coursebooks. Grant also
acknowledges that non-communicative activities, such as dictations,
grammatical clarification, and accuracy exercises, may still be useful if they
match learners' or teachers' preferred learning or teaching styles (Grant,
1987, p. 15).
To distinguish between traditional and communicative coursebooks,
Grant provides a four-step test. Firstly, the language used in the coursebook
is analysed. If the dialogues are artificial and not representative of real-life
communication, the coursebook is likely traditional. Conversely, if real-life
examples of communication are included, the coursebook is communicative.
Secondly, if the exercises and activities are likely to occur in real-life
situations, the coursebook is communicative.
Thirdly, the test examines if the activities prioritize accuracy over
fluency. A traditional coursebook is more likely to focus on accuracy, while
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PRACTICAL PART
a communicative coursebook prioritizes fluency, even if this means
accepting some errors.
Finally, the test assesses whether the coursebook emphasizes study or
practice.
A communicative coursebook should provide opportunities for learners
to use the language they are learning in contexts similar to real-life
situations, such as role-plays, discussions, debates, and simulations.
Most modern coursebooks are likely to be categorized as
communicative, including popular titles such as English File, American
English File, Headway by Oxford University Press, and Interchange and
Touchstone by Cambridge University Press. However, there is no definitive
ranking of best-selling coursebooks, as this market is constantly evolving
and global.
2.2 Coursebook Evaluation
When considering coursebooks for English Language Teaching (ELT)
courses, it is critical to make an informed decision due to their significant
impact on the teaching and learning process (Cunningsworth, 1995; Harmer,
1991). Cunningsworth suggests that a coursebooks quality is of paramount
importance as it can determine the overall success or failure of an ELT
course. Therefore, ELT teachers should be able to evaluate coursebooks to
maximize the success of the course. Failure to select an appropriate
coursebook can hinder learners' language acquisition rather than contribute
positively to their development.
Tomlinson (2008, p.3) highlights serious pedagogical flaws and
practical shortcomings in many coursebooks, such as overemphasis on
grammar rules, insufficient exposure to authentic language, lack of learner-
27
PRACTICAL PART
centeredness, inadequate coverage of language skills, and cultural
insensitivity. According to Tomlinson (2008, pp. 3-7), learning failure has
two leading causes. Firsdy, teachers often focus on teaching linguistic items
rather than creating opportunities for learners to acquire the language, which
is expected and required by society, i.e., by parents, publishers, authorities,
and learners. Secondly, authors of coursebooks focus on their intuition and
create materials that they think would be best for users instead of
considering learners' actual needs and how they could benefit from the
coursebook.
The primary reason for coursebook evaluation is to adopt new
coursebooks in ELT courses (Cunningsworth, 1995). In cases where
teachers have the autonomy to select coursebooks, they are responsible for
their choice. However, according to a survey conducted by Tomlinson
(2008, p. 8), only 15% of coursebooks are selected by teachers, while
authorities (e.g., institutions, directors of studies, and colleagues) primarily
select coursebooks (up to 85%). Therefore, it is beneficial if teachers can
analyse and identify particular strengths and weaknesses of coursebooks to
maximize their strong points while strengthening their weaker fields through
adaptation or substituting materials from other coursebooks
(Cunningsworth, 1995).
In light of the above, conducting an ELT coursebook evaluation is
essential to support the effective attainment of both teaching and learning
goals. The wrong choice of coursebooks could negatively affect both
teaching and learning. Coursebook evaluation involves selective and
subjective critical analysis based on criteria that vary due to current
circumstances. Various pedagogical factors, such as age, nationality,
cultural background, methodology, and personal involvement, can influence
coursebook evaluation. Therefore, there is no material that can generally
28
PRACTICAL PART
apply to all ELT courses. However, according to Grant (1990), a
coursebook should comply with three conditions to be optimal for a specific
group of learners.
The conditions are as follows:
• It should suit the needs, interests, and abilities of learners.
• It should suit the teacher (The best book in the world will not
work in your classroom if you have good reasons for disliking
it).
• The coursebook must meet the needs of official public teaching
syllabuses or examinations. (Grant, 1990, p. 118)
In Cunningsworth's (1995) perspective, the assessment of coursebooks
entails a meticulous process of material selection that evaluates their
alignment with the learners' genuine needs and the specific course's
objectives, methods, and values. This evaluation critically analyses whether
the content and methodology of the coursebooks adequately fulfil the
criteria for effective language instruction within a given context.
2.2.1 Types of Evaluation
A wealth of literature is available on evaluating coursebooks and identifying
the criteria for a high-quality coursebook. Various authors have proposed
different evaluation methods and criteria. For instance, Alan Cunningsworth
focuses on the distinct types of ELT coursebooks and outlines specific
criteria for selecting them. Rod Ellis presents two distinct approaches to
evaluating teaching materials, depending on when the evaluation is
conducted. Meanwhile, Jan Pmcha approaches the topic from the
perspective of a pedagogical researcher, and Neville Grant likens
coursebook evaluation to everyday situations for ease of understanding. The
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PRACTICAL PART
authors mentioned above, including A. Daoud, Marianne Celce-Murcia,
Mary Spratt, and Penny Ur, were reviewed, and compared to provide the
author with practical information for the thesis.
2.3 Grammar and its Role
A language's sound sound, structure, and meaning system is known as
grammar. A l l languages have grammar, and each language has its own
grammar.
Canale and Swain's (1980) model of communicative competence
identifies grammatical competence as the knowledge of the underlying rules
of a language and the ability to use those rules to construct meaningful
sentences. In this model, grammatical competence is essential for producing
accurate and appropriate language forms. Within the context of
communicative competence, grammar can be defined as one of the subcompetencies
of linguistic competence.
Similarly, Bachman and Palmer's (2017) construct of communicative
language ability includes grammatical competence as one of its components.
Grammatical competence, in this model, refers to the knowledge and ability
to use the syntactic, morphological, and phonological rules of a language to
create well-formed and meaningful utterances.
In both models, grammatical competence is seen as a critical
component of communicative competence, as it enables language learners to
produce grammatically correct and meaningful language forms that can be
used to convey their intended meanings in different communicative
contexts.
At all levels of our educational system, grammar is an important aspect
of the language curriculum. Most English coursebooks are divided into
30
PRACTICAL PART
smaller units according to the grammar topics presented in each unit. ESL
teachers tend to primarily focus on grammar and base their lessons on
grammar topics that they want to teach the learners, while learners'
knowledge, progress, and performance is often measured using grammar
tests.
A study by Nassaji and Fotos (2004) found that grammar was the most
commonly taught language component by ESL teachers, with 90% of the
teachers surveyed reporting that they spent a significant amount of time
teaching grammar. In a study by Chen and Su (2011), ESL teachers reported
spending an average of 30-50% of their classroom time on grammar
instruction. A study by Celce-Murcia and Larsen-Freeman (2011) found that
grammar was the most frequently taught language feature in ELT
coursebooks.
These studies suggest that ESL teachers tend to focus on grammar
instruction and that grammar is a vital component of many ESL lessons and
coursebooks. However, it is important to note that the focus on grammar
may vary depending on the teacher's approach, teaching context, and learner
needs. Some ESL teachers may prioritize other language components, such
as vocabulary or discourse, while others may use a more integrated
approach incorporating multiple language components.
The question is, what is grammar, and what is its role in foreign
language learning?
2.3.1 Grammar
The word grammar comes from a Greek expression grammatike tekhně,
which literally means "the art of letters, referring both to philology and
literature in the broadest sense" ("Online Etymology Dictionary" n.d.).
Nowadays, the term grammar is defined and interpreted in various ways.
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PRACTICAL PART
Richard Nordquist, a professor emeritus of Rhetoric and English at Georgia
Southern University and author of several grammar and composition
coursebooks, suggests that the two most common definitions of grammar
are:
• The systematic study and description of a language
• A set of rules and examples dealing with the syntax and word structures
of a language usually intended as an aid to the learning of that
language (Nordquist, 2020)
According to Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary, grammar
means "the study or use of the rules about how words change their form and
combine with other words to make sentences" ("Cambridge Dictionary"
n.d.). Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary defines grammar as "the rules
in a language for changing the form of words and joining them into
sentences", or as "a person's knowledge and use of a language" ("Oxford
Online Dictionary" n.d.). Harmer (1991) states that all these definitions
contain two essential elements concerning grammar: the rules of grammar in
a language and the study and practice of the rules.
2.3.2 Types of Grammar
According to Lock (1996), there are two approaches to describing the
grammar of a language. One approach describes grammar as a set of rules
that specify all the possible grammatical structures of a language. In this
approach, an explicit division is usually made between grammatical (also
known as well-former) sentences and ungrammatical sentences. The forms
of grammatical structures and their relationships to one another are more
important than their meanings and applications in different contexts. A
grammarian who is interested in this type of description will frequently use
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PRACTICAL PART
made-up sentences to illustrate different grammatical rules rather than
sentences taken from real-world sources for analysis.
Another approach views language first and foremost as a system of
communication, examining grammar to see how it is organized to allow
speakers and writers to create and exchange meaning. Rather than insisting
on a clear distinction between grammatical and ungrammatical forms, the
emphasis is usually on the suitability of a form for a specific communicative
purpose in a particular context. The primary focus is on the functions of
structures and their constituents, as well as their contextual meanings. A
grammarian interested in this type of description is likely to use data from
authentic texts in specific contexts (the term text refers to both spoken and
written language).
The former approach to the analysis of grammar is often called formal,
while the latter approach is commonly regarded as functional. Lock (1996)
believes that the two approaches are not mutually exclusive. While formal
analyses take account of meaning and function at some point, functional
analyses take account of form. Nevertheless, most grammar descriptions can
be found exclusively within one or the other of the mentioned approaches.
The distinction between formal and functional approaches is also
applicable to the difference between theoretical linguistics and applied
linguistics.
Norquist (2020) describes another distinction that linguists make:
descriptive and prescriptive grammar. Both types of grammar concern
specific rules, but in two different ways.
Prescriptive grammar represents the traditional approach of grammar
that explains how to use a language, what forms should be used, and what
functions should the forms serve. It essentially describes how a language
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should be used and states what is correct and incorrect, not considering how
native speakers would use it. Descriptive grammar, on the other hand,
focuses on describing how speakers actually use the language in common
communication instead of stating how it should be used in the correct way
(Nordquist, 2020).
Hand in hand with the distinction of prescriptive and descriptive
grammar goes a classification of written and spoken grammar. Harmer
(2001, pp. 14-16) describes that speakers often use written and spoken
language in various ways because of the fact that spoken grammar is based
on its own constructional principles. Therefore, spoken language is
organised in a different way than written language, for instance, by the use
of interjections (ah, wow, oh no) and hesitators (umm, erm, er), which are
normally acceptable in spoken discourse but not suitable in written
discourse.
2.3.3 Grammar in Written and Oral Form
Thornbury (1999) states that grammar has always been presented based on
the written language until recently when grammar started to be also taught
based on the oral language. Harmer (2001) argues that based on the level of
formality in spoken language, some rules that were considered fundamental
in English language production are called into question. Moreover, he
suggests that apart from the level of formality, another problem of oral
language is that it often features stronger regional and idiomatic elements
than written one.
Willis (2003) adds that written language is more accessible than oral
one since every written piece of text is full of data to work with. Sometimes
it is hard to analyse grammar in spoken language as it may be changeable,
and there is no adequate manual on how to do that. However, Willis (2003)
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suggests that if teachers want to illustrate the grammar of a spoken
language, they should give their learners enough opportunities to analyse
and also produce spontaneous natural language in day-to-day
communication.
Crystal (2002) proposes that such a difference between oral and written
language is entirely natural and follows the innate development in society.
Though Harmer (2001) suggests that the difference between oral and written
language is significant and spoken language has its unique construction
grammar rules, Crystal (2002) opposes that it is important not to overrate
the difference and states that up to 95% of grammatical constructions
appears both in written and spoken language.
2.3.4 Formal and Informal Language
Swan (2005) states that almost all languages worldwide have different
levels of formality according to the situational context. Formal and informal
language serve different purposes both in written and oral language.
Although it depends mainly on the situational context in each specific
situation, the formal register is often associated with written language.
In contrast, the informal register is associated more with spoken
language. Even though the difference in the level of formality is often
expressed lexically, it can also be expressed using various grammatical
features. For instance, Biber & Quirk (2012) and Crystal (2011) describe
how formal written English typically employs complex sentence structures,
more abstract nouns, and passive voice, whereas shorter sentences, more
concrete nouns, and active voice characterize spoken English.
In the English language, specific grammatical structures are considered
either formal or informal and, therefore, are more frequent in spoken
language rather than in written language and vice versa (Wardhaugh, 2018).
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However, with the development of communication technologies, informal
language is becoming more common, even in written language (Holmes,
2013). Trudgill and Hannah (2002) provide examples of how English has
evolved differently in various regions of the world, resulting in different
varieties and registers of the language, including formal and informal ones.
For instance, shortened forms of words like verbs, auxiliaries, or modals
attached to other words (contractions), phrasal verbs, acronyms, slang, or
colloquialism, are considered informal and thus used in informal situations
both in written and spoken language.
2.3.5 Role of Grammar in Foreign Language Teaching
This thesis has already explained that grammar forms the basic structure of
any language. Languages would lack coherence and comprehensibility if
there were no grammar rules, given the abundance of language variations
that would. Such languages would become ambiguous and contradictory for
various reasons. For example, in written language, incorrect use of
punctuation or tenses can alter the intended meaning of a sentence and
create misunderstandings. In spoken language, however, incorrect grammar
or pronunciation may still be comprehensible, though it can still cause
confusion and affect effective communication. Some languages do not have
a complex tense system like English, and the distinction between past,
present, and future may not be grammatically marked. In such cases, the
meaning of an utterance can often be conveyed by the context, lexical
means or additional words.
However, the absence of a complex tense system does not necessarily
mean that grammar rules are unimportant for mutual communication. In any
language, there are still grammatical structures that need to be followed in
order for the utterance to make sense and convey the intended meaning. For
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example, word order, verb agreement, and subject-verb-object arrangement
are crucial elements of grammar in many languages, and incorrect use of
these structures can still cause confusion or ambiguity in communication.
For that reason, grammar used to be the central point in foreign
language teaching. In fact, the grammar-translation method was one of the
most widely used teaching methods from the 19th century until the mid-20th
century. This method emphasizes the correct use of grammar in translation
exercises. Richards (2006, pp. 2-3) states that this method focuses on the
knowledge of building blocks of sentences, e.g., tenses, phrases, clauses,
and how sentences are formed. Using this method, learners learn
grammatical rules and then apply their knowledge in translation between the
native and target language. This results in knowing the theoretical aspects of
language very well but lacking the ability to use it effectively in day-to-day
communication. This was caused not only by the method itself but also by
the selection of materials. Some examples of materials used in the grammartranslation
method include grammar rules written in the learners' native
language, lists of vocabulary with their translations, and short texts or
dialogues to translate. These materials often focus on isolated grammar
points rather than integrating them into authentic communicative contexts.
Additionally, the materials tend to be dry and lack real-world relevance,
hindering learners' motivation and engagement in the learning process
(Richards, 2006).
In recent decades, there has been a trend towards shifting the focus
from grammar-focused approaches to more communicative-oriented
approaches in foreign language teaching. The shift towards communicative
language teaching began to gain momentum in the 1970s and 1980s, with
the introduction of theories such as communicative competence by Dell
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Hymes (1972) and the emphasis on functional and situational language use
by Michael Halliday (1975).
This shift has been driven by the recognition that language learning
should aim not only at the acquisition of grammatical rules but also at the
development of communicative competence, that is, the ability to use
language effectively in real-life communicative situations (Canale & Swain,
1980; Bachman & Palmer, 2017). The communicative approach, which
emphasizes the importance of communicative competence, has been
prevailing in foreign language teaching since the 1980s (Richards &
Rodgers, 2001). However, it is essential to note that many other methods
and approaches have developed between the grammar-translation method
and the communicative approach, including the direct method, the audiolingual
method, and the cognitive approach (Richards & Rodgers, 2001).
Therefore, the prevailing approach in teaching a foreign language is
called the communicative approach. This approach highlights the
importance of communicative competence, including the following aspects
of language knowledge:
• How to use language for different purposes and functions
• How to produce and understand different types of texts
• How to vary our use of language according to the setting and the
participants (Richards, 2006, pp. 2-3)
Richards (2006) highlights that language teaching has shifted from
grammar to communicative competence, which emphasizes the use of
language in specific communicative situations. In this approach, various
enjoyable, communicative activities are utilized to allow learners to use the
language in real-life situations. Grammar is no longer the primary goal of
teaching and learning but rather a tool to achieve the goal of communicative
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PRACTICAL PART
competence. This shift in language teaching aligns with the concept of
communicative competence, which emphasizes the ability to use language
effectively in various social contexts (Canale & Swain, 1980).
2.3.6 Learners' Difficulties with Grammar
Harmer (1987, pp. 9-16) describes the most common difficulties for learners
learning English grammar. These difficulties include:
• Mismatch between form and function - many grammatical forms are
used to perform several different functions, for example, present
continuous describes actions taking place now but it can also refer to
future. On the contrary, it is possible to find that several different forms
are available in English to express what seems to be a single function.
For instance, the variety of verb forms which can be used to refer to
future time
• Contrast between English and mother tongue - when the English
grammar system works different from learner's native language
difficulties arise very easily, e.g., structure of tenses in English and
other languages
• English is full of exceptions of grammar rules - probably in every
language there exist exceptions to the normal grammar rules and so it
is also in English, e.g., past tense is usually created by adding -ed to
the base form of the verb but there are many verbs with irregular forms
Harmer (1987, pp. 9-16)
Moreover, it is not only learners having problems with grammar but
also teachers may struggle with it. Even though most teachers have no
problems applying grammar rules when producing language, they struggle
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with explaining the rules to the learners. Henrici and Riemer (1994, pp. 163-
165) summarized the three most common problems as follows:
• Explanation of grammar in the interesting and motivating way
• Understandable explanation of the grammar
• Formulation of grammatical rules without unnecessary exceptions
(Henrici; Riemer, 1994, pp. 163-165)
2.4 Grammar Syllabus
Harmer (2001) states that a grammar syllabus is the most common type of
syllabus, both traditionally and currently. Apart from grammar syllabus,
there are also other types of syllabuses; for example, a lexical syllabus that
is organised based on the vocabulary and lexis, a functional syllabus that
focuses on communicative functions, a situational syllabus that selects and
sequences various real-life situations, or topic-based syllabus that organises
language around different topics. Harmer (2001) also introduces a multisyllabus
syllabus, which is "a common solution to the competing claims of
the different syllabus types" (p. 299). Such a syllabus takes a grammar
syllabus as the foundation and complements it with items from lexis,
language functions, situations, topics, tasks, different language skill tasks or
pronunciation issues (p. 300).
A grammatical syllabus can be described as a collection of
grammatical content found in ELT coursebooks. Burton (2022) describes a
grammatical syllabus as a document that states which grammar points have
been selected for a particular coursebook (content) and in which order it has
been decided to teach them with regard to the level and age of learners
(sequencing). Grammar syllabuses are central to language teaching, and
opinions on their use often cut through the core of beliefs about language
40
PRACTICAL PART
teaching (Burton, 2022, p. 1). As Richards (2001) suggests, the term
syllabus is often contrasted with curriculum, when the former he describes
as "a specification of the content of a course of instruction, which lists what
will be taught and tested" (p. 2), while the latter "considers also learners'
needs, course objectives, course structure, teaching methods and materials,
and evaluation" (p.3). Burton (2022, p. 1) concludes that a syllabus is "an
ordered catalogue of teaching items, which can be dealt with in different
ways according to the overall curriculum."
O'Keeffe & Mark (2017) argue that in the ELT profession, there exists
a catalogue of grammatical content, most clearly seen in coursebooks and
practice grammar, representing the most prevalently held opinions on the
proper content of the catalogue of grammar points to be presented and
taught to language learners (for example, across all levels of a coursebook
series) and the level of learning at which each item in the catalogue should
be taught. Newby (2017) adds that the content of grammatical syllabuses
consists of a specific type of grammatical analysis and description, namely
pedagogical grammar. Newby (2017) describes pedagogical grammar as "a
grammar developed for learners of a foreign language" (p. 524).
Pedagogical grammar aims not to provide a full account of a language but
describes features considered to be of most interest and importance to
learners. Swan (2011) notes that such selectivity is a part of pragmatic
considerations and that "time constraints do not allow language learners to
learn, or their teachers to teach, anything approaching the whole of a
language" (p. 565). The question is, however, who is it to make the selection
and on what principles, as the rationale for the grammar syllabus found in
ELT coursebooks is rarely made explicit. (Burton, 2022)
Concerning the criteria for grammar points to be included in a
particular grammar syllabus, Thornbury (2006) describes two fundamental
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features: frequency and usefulness. Nevertheless, it is relatively rare that the
most frequently used grammar points are the most useful ones, as usefulness
depends on the specific needs of each learner. Therefore, Thornbury (2006)
adds three other criterions: difficulty, learnability from a learner's position,
and learnability from a teacher's position.
"As regards difficulty and learnability from a learner's position, it
should always be considered that the more grammar points there are, the
more difficult the structure is" (Tomlinson & Masuhara, 2017, p. 27). For
instance, the structure of past continuous is more difficult than the structure
of present continuous, while the structure of future perfect continuous is
even more difficult. Hence a certain logical ordering from the easier
structures to the more difficult ones should be applied. Moreover, it should
always be distinguished between what learners actually learn and what is
expected from them as the result of the learning process.
According to Lightbown and Spada (2013), teachers' beliefs about the
learnability of particular grammar structures can affect their selection and
sequencing of content in a language course. They argue that teachers may
prioritize teaching specific structures they perceive as more learnable, even
if those structures are not the most frequent or essential for communication.
Additionally, they note that teachers' beliefs about learnability can be
influenced by their own linguistic background, teaching experience, and
familiarity with different teaching methodologies.
Harmer (2001) then adds another criterion which is coverage. He
describes it as a scope of use of words and phrases and claims that "some
words and structures have greater coverage than others. Thus, a teacher can
decide, on the basis of coverage, to introduce the going to future before the
present continuous with future reference, if they could show that going to
could be used in more situations than the present continuous" (p. 296).
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2.5 Approaches to Teaching Grammar
Cortez & Genisan (2021, p. 29) state that there has always been a discussion
in the field of second language grammar acquisition and teaching whether to
learn grammar explicidy through conscious learning of grammatical rules or
if it should be acquired implicitly in the context of meaningful language
rules. Schwarz (2014) argues that it is the responsibility of teachers to teach
grammar in foreign language instruction, and they should strive to do so in a
manner that is efficient due to time constraints. Abdullah and Shah (2014)
indicate that by studying grammar, language users are allowed to analyse
patterns and avoid making mistakes, which may lead to more accurate skills,
namely speaking and writing, among language learners. Abdullah and Shah
(2014) then describe two groups of language teachers.
The first group of teachers tends to use the structural method in
teaching grammar, stating that this method is the most efficient for
enhancing language proficiency. The structural method is a language
teaching approach that emphasizes the study and analysis of the structure of
the language, particularly its grammar, syntax, and morphology. It focuses
on explicitly teaching language rules and structures, often through deductive
instruction, and using drills and exercises to reinforce learning. The goal is
to help learners master the language's underlying structure so they can use it
correctly in communication. The structural method was popularized in the
mid-20th century, particularly in the United States, and was influential in
developing communicative language teaching approaches.
The other group prefers to teach grammar using the communicative
language teaching approach as they believe that a communicative approach
helps learners to acquire grammatical structures without resorting to rote
memorization or tedious learning strategies. The two approaches can be
43
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called inductive and deductive, or, as Thornbury (2006) suggests, it may be
easier to use the terms rule-driven learning and discovery learning.
According to Thornbury (2006), a deductive approach to teaching
grammar means that a teacher first presents the rules and only then provides
learners with exercises and activities so that they can apply the rules. On the
other hand, utilizing the inductive approach entails providing learners with
examples of the application of a particular grammatical rule, from which a
rule can be deduced.
To understand the difference between inductive and deductive
approaches better, Thornbury (2006) presents two following examples:
(1) "On arriving in a country you have never been to before, you are
told that as a rule people rub noses when greeting one another, and so you
do exactly that."
(2) "On arriving in this same country, you observe several instances of
people rubbing their noses on meeting so you conclude that this is the
custom, and proceed to do likewise." (Thornbury, 2006, p. 29)
These examples clearly explain the terms inductive and deductive
approach to teaching and learning grammar, when the first example (1) talks
about the deductive approach, and the second (2) about the inductive
approach.
2.5.1 The Deductive Approach in Teaching Grammar
The deductive approach, also known as rule-driven learning, is an
elementary approach to teaching grammar from rules to examples.
According to Schwarz (2014), this approach is the academic and scholarly
one that was invented to teach Latin and Greek.
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When teaching grammar using the deductive approach, the teacher uses
an example in a coursebook or writes their own examples on the board,
explaining the underlying rule almost always in the first language, using the
meta-language of grammar. Learners then try to apply the rule, orally or in
writing, in order to practice the use of it. According to Cortez & Genisan
(2021, p. 30), special attention is paid to the area of conflict between the
grammar of the mother tongue and that of the target language. Moreover,
the whole process is cognitive as learners contemplate the grammar rules
and think about the structures before they produce spoken or written
language, with little attention devoted to the value of the message.
According to Umida, Dilora, and Umar (2020), the deductive approach
is the traditional or explicit approach to teaching grammar which focuses on
basic skills that are the fundamental grammatical rules and concepts taught
explicitly to learners. These basic skills may include knowledge of parts of
speech, sentence structure, verb tenses, and other essential elements of
grammar. The traditional refers to the approach commonly used in teaching
grammar for a long time, which involves explicitly teaching grammar rules
and focusing on basic skills. It is contrasted with the more modern
communicative approach, which focuses on communication and language
use in context rather than isolated grammar rules. Thornbury (2006) adds
that this approach is traditionally associated with the Grammar-Translation
method. Larsen-Freeman (2000) explains that the Grammar-Translation
method is a deductive approach to teaching grammar. This method primarily
focuses on the grammatical rules and structure of the target language, and
learners are expected to memorize and apply them in practice activities such
as translating sentences. The use of learners' first language is common in
this method, and the primary goal is to improve reading and writing skills
rather than speaking and pronunciation. However, this approach does not
45
PRACTICAL PART
provide learners with enough opportunities to practice the target language in
authentic situations. Learning in the Grammar-Translation method is based
on repetition, which can be effective for some learners but may not work
well for others who need more varied and communicative practice.
Cortez & Genisan (2021) describe the teacher's role in this approach as
directive and rooted in authority as there is a belief that teachers impart
information to learners while learners receive knowledge and work on their
own using their coursebooks. Afterwards, teachers assess the outcome using
declarative knowledge testing as there is a definite correct answer for every
question.
Thornbury (2006) suggests that the deductive approach may be suitable
solely for adult learners or learners whose English is a a decent level as such
learners already know the fundamental grammar structures of a language.
According to Saadatnia and Tahririan (2016), the deductive approach
can effectively teach grammar rules explicitly, allowing learners to
understand and internalize the rules faster than the inductive approach. This
method benefits learners who prefer structured and organized learning, as it
provides a clear framework for learning grammar. Additionally, the
deductive approach can benefit learners who need to pass exams requiring
knowledge of grammar rules. The approach can help them learn and apply
the rules in practice exercises.
Thornbury (2006) suggests that a deductive approach to teaching
grammar has several advantages, including:
• It gets straight to the point and can therefore be time-saving.
Many rules, especially rules of form, can be more simply and
quickly explained than elicited from examples. This will allow
more time for practice and application.
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PRACTICAL PART
• It respects the intelligence and maturity of many - especially
adult students.
• It confirms many students' expectations about classroom
learning, particularly for those learners who have an analytical
learning style.
• It allows the teacher to deal with language points as they come
up, rather than having to anticipate them and prepare for them
in advance. (Thornbury, 2006, p. 30)
Kaye (2007) then adds another advantage that a teacher can monitor
learners' progress and understanding of a certain grammar point more
easily.
Conversely, there are certain disadvantages of a deductive approach.
One disadvantage of a deductive approach to teaching grammar is that it
may not provide learners with enough opportunities to practice the target
language in authentic situations (Umida, Dilora, & Umar, 2020). Learners
may become overly reliant on explicit rules and struggle to use the language
in real-life communicative situations. Additionally, some learners may find
this approach boring or unengaging, as it may not offer enough
opportunities for creativity and self-expression. Finally, the approach can be
quite teacher-centred, with the teacher directing the learning process and
learners expected to follow instructions without much input or participation
(Cortez & Genisan, 2021). Thornbury (2006) describes some of the possible
disadvantages:
• Starting the lesson with a grammar presentation may be offputting
for some students, especially younger ones. They may
not have sufficient metalanguage (i.e., language used to talk
47
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about language such as grammar terminology. Or they may not
be able to understand the concepts involved.
• Grammar explanation encourages a teacher-fronted,
transmission-style classroom; teacher explanation is often at
the expense of student involvement and interaction.
• Explanation is seldom as memorable as other forms of
presentation, such as demonstration.
• Such an approach encourages the belief that learning a
language is simply a case of knowing the rules, (p. 30)
2.5.2 The Inductive Approach in Teaching Grammar
The inductive approach, also known as the rule-developing approach, is,
according to Schwarz (2014) an approach that encourages learners to realise
certain grammar rules without any form of prior explanation, from examples
to rules. Such a way of learning, learning through experience, is perceived
as a natural way of learning. Teachers who support and prefer this approach
assume that the grammar rules become evident when learners get enough
time and appropriate examples in the learning process. Schwarz (2014)
states that the procedure starts with a teacher's demonstration of the
meaning of a grammar point to the class, being silent during this stage apart
from correcting if necessary. The teacher shows the grammar point on the
board only after extensive practice but does not always make explanations
except for the situations when learners elicit explanations themselves. When
this happens, the first language may be used. Finally, the model is copied,
and learners might be told to produce and write sample sentences from the
model.
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Umida, Dilora, and Umar (2020) add that the inductive approach can
also be called the constructivist approach, stating that such an approach
focuses on big concepts, going from the whole and pervading to include the
parts. Using this approach, learners' learning is interactive, and learners'
knowledge is built on the basis of what they already know. Moreover, the
teacher's role is interactive too. The teacher establishes a dialogue with the
learners and helps them create their own knowledge. Learners cooperate in
pairs or groups, which makes their questions and interests appreciated. The
assessment includes learners' works, observations, opinions, and even
testing. Nonetheless, Cortez & Genisan (2021) believe that the learning
process is just as vital as the final product.
Abdullah and Shah (2015) note that a considerable number of nations
have adopted Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), also referred to as
the covert method, as the basis for their English language curricula. With
the covert method, the teacher engages the class in applying the structure
without pointing out grammatical conventions. Learners have ample
opportunity to practice the question forms, as communicative learning is
prioritized over explicit grammar instruction in the covert approach. When
performing speaking and listening activities, the technique creates a setting
where several languages, both known and unknown, are encountered.
Learners are only assisted in learning a new language when they already
have some familiarity with it and questions or curiosity about it.
Additionally, according to Christensson and Seiberling (2021),
concentrating on form entails calling attention to the grammatical forms
while engaging in communicative-based tasks. This might be accidental or
intentional. Planned Focus on Form is when the instructor creates a
communicative-based assignment that highlights the usage of a certain
grammatical form by the learners as opposed to incidental Focus on Form,
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PRACTICAL PART
which is when the teacher labels grammatical forms when errors occur in
learners' communication.
Kaye (2007) considers the inductive approach a modern way of
teaching grammar since it includes some discovery techniques and, in some
ways, tries to imitate the process of acquiring the language. It also provides
learners with a plethora of authentic materials and focuses on learners as the
most important part of the learning process.
Thornbury (2006) provides a summary of the benefits of the inductive
approach, which are:
• Rules learners discover for themselves are more likely to fit
their existing mental structures than rules they have been
presented with. This in turn will make the rules more
meaningful, memorable, and serviceable.
• The mental effort involved ensures a greater degree of
cognitive depth which, again, ensures greater memorability.
• Students are more actively involved in the learning process,
rather than being simply passive recipients: they are therefore
likely to be more attentive and more motivated.
• It is an approach which favours pattern-recognition and
problem-solving abilities which suggests that it is particularly
suitable for learners who like this kind of challenge.
• If the problem-solving is done collaboratively, and in the target
language, learners get the opportunity for extra language
practice.
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• Working things out for themselves prepares students for
greater self-reliance and is therefore conducive to learner
autonomy. (Thornbury, 2006, p. 54)
In contrast, he describes the disadvantages accordingly:
• The time and energy spent in working our rules may mislead
students into believing that rules are the objective of language
learning, rather than a means.
• The time taken to work out a rule may be at the expense of time
spent in putting the rule to some sort of productive practice.
• Students may hypothesise the wrong rule, or their version of the
rule may be either too broad or too narrow in its application:
this is especially a danger where there is no overt testing of
their hypotheses, either through practice examples, or by
eliciting an explicit statement of the rule.
• It can place heavy demands on teachers in planning a lesson.
They need to select and organise the data carefully so as to
guide learners to an accurate formulation of the rule, while
also ensuring the data is intelligible.
• However carefully organised the data is, many language areas
such as aspect and modality resist easy rule formulation.
• An inductive approach frustrates students who, by dint of their
personal learning style or their past learning experience (or
both), would prefer simply to be told the rule. (Thornbury,
2006, pp. 53-54)
Thornbury (2006, p. 54) states that "research findings into the relative
benefits of deductive and inductive methods have been inconclusive." Based
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on the research findings, he suggests that deductive learning has shown
short-term advantages and that there is some evidence to support the idea
that some linguistic objects are better received than discovered.
Additionally, most learners seem to choose deductive grammar
presentations when polled. However, after being introduced to inductive
methods, there is frequently less opposition since the learners see the
advantages of approaching solutions on their own. The ability to recognise
patterns and regularities in naturally occurring materials would seem to be a
vital capability for self-directed learning and as such, one that may be
cultivated in the classroom, which further supports the autonomy argument.
2.5.3 The Eclectic Approach to Teaching Grammar
The eclectic approach to language teaching is characterized by a
combination of different methodologies and techniques based on the needs
of learners and the context of learning (Brown, 2007). This approach
combines all the positive aspects of the deductive and inductive approaches.
Cortez & Genisan (2021) claim that even though the language is intended
for communication, there are still times when a brief explanation of a
grammatical principle is important. Moreover, there will not be any formal
language teaching because learners may learn the rules on their own over
time. Not only will learners benefit from this strategy, but so will the
teachers. The teachers will also be able to cater to the various needs and
learning preferences of the pupils. In addition, Schwarz (2014) notes that,
like in all choices of pedagogy, the middle path is the best when it comes to
teaching grammar.
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2.6 Grammar and Methods
Thornbury (2006) argues that over the last century, the architects of
language teaching methods have been focused on two fundamental design
decisions regarding grammar:
(1) Should the method adhere to a grammar syllabus ?
(2) Should the rules of grammar be made explicit? (Thornbury, 2006,
p. 21)
Thornbury (2006) believes that the different ways the architects of
language teaching answered these questions help discern various methods of
teaching from each other. The following chapter briefly describes some of
the methods concerning their approach to these questions.
2.6.1 Grammar-Translation Method
The Grammar-Translation method is a traditional approach to teaching
foreign languages that originated in the 19th century. Its focus is on the
explicit teaching of grammar rules and vocabulary through the translation of
texts from the target language to the learner's native language and vice
versa.
According to Richards and Rodgers (2014), the Grammar-Translation
method is based on the belief that language learning should involve
mastering grammatical rules and memorising vocabulary. Learners learn
language by translating texts and analysing grammar rules and are expected
to understand and apply these rules in their own writing and speaking.
This method is often criticised for its lack of emphasis on speaking and
listening skills, which are essential for real-life communication. The
emphasis on grammar rules and vocabulary memorisation can also
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demotivate learners, as it can be perceived as boring and irrelevant to their
needs.
Despite these criticisms, the Grammar-Translation method continues to
be used in some language classrooms, particularly for teaching classical
languages such as Latin or Greek. Its focus on the explicit teaching of
grammar can be helpful for learners who need to develop a strong
understanding of grammatical rules to read and write in the target language.
In conclusion, while the Grammar-Translation method has its
advantages in specific contexts, it is generally considered an outdated and
ineffective approach to language teaching. Modern language teaching
methods, such as Communicative Language Teaching, prioritise developing
speaking and listening skills and encourage learners to use language in
meaningful communication rather than simply memorising grammar rules
and vocabulary.
2.6.2 The Direct Method
The Direct Method is a language teaching approach that emphasizes the
direct use of the target language, avoiding using the learners' native
language. It was developed in the late 19th century in response to the
Grammar-Translation Method, which had been criticized for focusing on
written language at the expense of oral communication. According to
Richards and Rodgers (2014), the Direct Method aims to develop the
learners' ability to think and communicate in the target language by
immersing them in it from the start.
According to Larsen-Freeman (1986), the fundamental rule of this
method is that it avoids translating. The method is called direct, as the
nature of things is directly associated with the target language without using
the first language. This method focuses on oral skills directly in the target
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language, rejecting explicit teaching of grammar. Learners acquire the
language and grammar in a similar way as children acquire their mother
tongue, i.e., by being exposed and immersed in the language.
Richards & Rodgers (1999) claim that this method was successful
mainly in private schools as learners, who had to pay for their studies, were
motivated and taught by native speakers. On the contrary, it was rather
difficult to use this method in public schools as it was supposed that only
native speakers with a great knowledge of the concepts of this method
would teach this method, and it was difficult to find such teachers to teach
in public schools.
2.6.3 Audiolingualism
Audiolingualism, also known as the Army or Structural Method, is a
language-teaching approach that emerged in the 1950s (Richards &
Rodgers, 2001). The method is based on behaviourist principles that
emphasize habit formation and the acquisition of automatic responses to
stimuli (Larsen-Freeman & Anderson, 2011). The audio-lingual approach
aims to enable learners to produce accurate and fluent utterances in the
target language by drilling sentence patterns, grammar structures, and
vocabulary items (Richards & Rodgers, 2001).
The method emphasizes the oral skills of language learning, mainly
listening and speaking, with little attention paid to reading and writing
(Larsen-Freeman & Anderson, 2011). The teacher models target language
structures, and learners imitate and repeat them in drills and pattern practice
activities. Error correction and feedback are frequent, and the emphasis is on
producing accurate language rather than on meaning or communication.
Proponents of the audiolingual method claim that it effectively teaches
essential communication skills and builds learners' confidence and accuracy
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in the target language (Richards & Rodgers, 2001). However, critics argue
that the method focuses too much on mechanical drills and repetition and
does not provide learners with the tools to engage in meaningful
communication (Larsen-Freeman & Anderson, 2011).
Overall, the audiolingual method has significandy influenced language
teaching and remains a common approach in some contexts, particularly in
teaching English as a foreign language (Richards & Rodgers, 2001).
2.6.4 Communicative Language Teaching
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is an approach to language
teaching that emphasizes the importance of communication and meaning in
language learning. According to Nunan (1991), CLT is "an approach to
language teaching that aims to develop communicative competence in the
learner" (p. 6). This approach to language teaching emerged in the 1970s as
a reaction to the perceived limitations of more traditional approaches, such
as the Grammar-Translation Method and the Audio-Lingual Method.
Communicative Language Teaching emerged as a response to the
limitations of traditional grammar-based language teaching methods.
According to Thornbury (2006), CLT was influenced by sociolinguistics,
which emphasized that communicative competence encompasses more than
just knowledge of grammar rules. However, grammar was not entirely
excluded from the syllabus; instead, it was restored as a means to develop
communicative competence, albeit under a more functional approach. The
goal of CLT is for learners to acquire the ability to communicate fluently,
accurately, grammatically correctly, and effectively in the target language in
various real-life situations.
Harmer (2001) suggests that the primary aim of CLT is to enable
learners to use language structures in different contexts and for various
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purposes. The emphasis is placed more on the successful achievement of a
communicative goal than on language accuracy. During the learning
process, learners should focus on the content of the language rather than its
form.
According to Larsen-Freeman (1986), smaller groups of learners are
preferred when using the CLT approach in order to maximize their
communicative skills. Learners should be given sufficient opportunities to
express their thoughts, opinions, and feelings. Making mistakes is regarded
as a natural consequence of developing communicative skills, and
communicative interaction encourages cooperative relationships among
learners. The teacher's role is more of an observer and advisor than a direct
and active participant in the learning process.
In summary, CLT emphasizes the importance of developing
communicative competence through authentic communication in various
real-life situations. It encourages learners to focus on language's meaning
and communicate effectively rather than solely on grammatical correctness.
This method emphasizes learner-centeredness, where the teacher is a
facilitator rather than a director, allowing learners to take an active role in
the learning process.
2.6.5 Task-based Learning
Task-based learning (TBL) is a methodology that focuses on using
meaningful tasks as the central unit of instruction. According to Willis and
Willis (2007), tasks are activities that require learners to use language in
order to achieve a goal or solve a problem, and they often simulate real-life
situations. The goal of TBL is to develop the learners' communicative
competence by providing them with opportunities to use language
purposefully.
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TBL is based on the idea that language learning should be task-driven,
as opposed to rule-driven, which is characteristic of more traditional
language teaching methods. This approach is rooted in the principles of
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), and it places a strong emphasis
on learner-centeredness, where the learners are active participants in the
learning process.
In TBL, the focus is on using language to accomplish real-world tasks,
such as ordering food in a restaurant, filling out an application form, or
making a phone call. The tasks are designed to be challenging yet
achievable, and they are often structured around a series of pre-task, duringtask,
and post-task activities. The pre-task activities help to prepare the
learners for the task, the during-task activities provide opportunities for the
learners to use language to complete the task, and the post-task activities
allow for reflection and feedback on the task and the language used.
The TBL approach has been widely adopted and applied in language
classrooms worldwide. A number of studies have investigated the
effectiveness of TBL in promoting language learning. For instance, Kim
(2009) investigated the effectiveness of TBL on the development of Korean
EFL learners' speaking ability. The results showed that TBL significantly
improved the learners' speaking ability compared to traditional grammarfocused
instruction.
Furthermore, Skehan and Foster (1999) argued that TBL could
promote the acquisition of the language system and that it can also lead to
the development of cognitive skills, such as problem-solving and critical
thinking. These skills are considered important in both language learning
and in life more generally.
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In conclusion, TBL is a task-driven approach emphasising the
importance of using language to achieve real-world goals. It is an effective
method for promoting language learning, as well as the development of
cognitive skills. It is a learner-centred approach that emphasizes the
importance of learners being active participants in the learning process, and
it has been widely adopted and applied in language classrooms around the
world.
2.7 Grammar Practice
As reported by Harmer (2001), when learning and practising a language, the
emphasis can be put either on accuracy or fluency. It is vital to know
beforehand whether teachers want their learners to speak as fluently as
possible or as accurately as possible. Therefore, it is desirable to realize the
difference between two types of activities, communicative and noncommunicative.
Non-communicative activities focus primarily on the
accuracy of a single grammar point and its correct usage, which is often
monitored and corrected by a teacher. During these activities, learners often
lack interest and do not understand the purpose of such activities. On the
contrary, communicative activities focusing on fluency should encourage
learners' desire to communicate and use the target language while they
emphasize the content rather than form, with the teacher being a
communicative partner.
2.7.1 Accuracy
The importance of accuracy in grammar practice cannot be overstated, as it
is essential to language learning. According to Ellis (2015), accurate use of
grammar is necessary for successful communication, as even minor errors
can cause misunderstandings and affect the clarity of the message.
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Therefore, it is essential for language learners to focus on developing their
accuracy in grammar.
One effective strategy for developing accuracy in grammar is focused
practice. Nassaji and Fotos (2011) explain that focused practice involves
providing learners with opportunities to engage in structured activities
focusing on specific grammatical structures or rules. These activities can
include exercises, drills, or games that provide learners with repeated
opportunities to practice using the target grammar.
Another effective strategy for developing accuracy in grammar is
through explicit instruction. According to Larsen-Freeman (2017), explicit
instruction involves the teacher providing learners with clear explanations of
the grammatical structures, followed by opportunities for learners to practise
using the structures in context. Explicit instruction can be especially
beneficial for learners with limited exposure to the target language, as it
helps build a foundation of knowledge that can be applied in real-life
situations.
In addition to focused practice and explicit instruction, corrective
feedback can also be an effective tool for developing accuracy in grammar.
According to Bitchener and Knoch (2010), corrective feedback can help
learners identify and correct grammar errors. Feedback can be provided in
various forms, such as direct correction, prompts, or recasts, and can be
tailored to the learner's individual needs.
Finally, it is vital to incorporate authentic materials and contexts into
grammar practice activities. According to Ur (2012), authentic materials and
contexts help learners see the target grammar's relevance in real-life
situations. This can be achieved through activities such as role-plays,
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discussions, and simulations, which provide learners with opportunities to
use the target grammar in meaningful and authentic contexts.
In conclusion, accuracy in grammar practice is crucial for language
learners to communicate in the target language successfully. Practical
strategies for developing accuracy in grammar include focused practice,
explicit instruction, corrective feedback, and the use of authentic materials
and contexts. By incorporating these strategies into their teaching practices,
language teachers can help their learners to achieve greater accuracy in their
use of grammar.
2.7.2 Fluency
Fluency is a vital aspect of language learning that enables learners to
communicate effectively and efficiently in the target language. According to
Skehan (1998), fluency involves the ability to use language structures and
expressions smoothly, accurately, and effortlessly in real-time
communication. Therefore, it is essential for language learners to focus on
developing their fluency to achieve successful communication in the target
language.
One effective strategy for developing fluency is through extensive
reading and listening activities. These activities can include reading graded
readers, listening to podcasts or radio programs, or watching videos in the
target language, which provide learners with repeated exposure to authentic
language use. According to Nation (2014), extensive reading and listening
can help learners to develop their automaticity and speed in processing
language, which are key components of fluency.
Another effective strategy for developing fluency is through the use of
communicative activities. According to Thornbury (2015), communicative
activities involve learners in real-life communication tasks that require them
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to use language for meaningful purposes. These activities can include roleplays,
debates, or discussions, which allow learners to use language
spontaneously and creatively in authentic contexts.
In addition to extensive reading and communicative activities, timed
and repeated practice can also be an effective tool for developing fluency.
According to Skehan and Foster (1999), timed and repeated practice
involves learners engaging in activities requiring them to produce language
under time pressure, which helps to develop their automaticity and speed in
language use. These activities can include dictations, speed-writing
exercises, or timed role-plays, which provide learners with opportunities to
use language accurately and fluently under time constraints.
Finally, it is essential to provide learners with feedback on their
fluency. According to Derwing and Munro (2015), feedback can help
learners identify and correct language errors and develop greater fluency in
their speech. Feedback can be provided in various forms, such as
recordings, self-assessments, or peer assessments, and can be tailored to the
learner's individual needs.
To conclude, fluency is a crucial aspect of language learning that
enables learners to communicate effectively and efficiently in the target
language. Practical strategies for developing fluency include extensive
reading and listening activities, communicative activities, timed and
repeated practice, and feedback on fluency. By incorporating these
strategies into their teaching practices, language teachers can help their
learners to achieve greater fluency in their use of language.
2.7.3 Phases of Grammar Practice
Every learning process has its principles, and the same applies to learning
grammar. It is necessary to undergo certain phases that logically follow one
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another and guide learners through the grammar learning process. There are
certain nuances in each of the following phases, yet the basis is still the
same. In the process of acquiring new knowledge, grammar, in this case, it
is essential to provide learners with sufficient and comprehensible input,
thanks to which the learners' internal system is created. Ur (2006)
distinguishes these four phases: presentation, isolation and explaining,
practice, and testing.
Presentation
Presentation is an essential phase in grammar teaching and learning, where
teachers present new grammar structures or rules to learners in a clear and
comprehensible way, as it sets the foundation for learners to understand and
use new grammar structures accurately and effectively. According to
Larsen-Freeman and Anderson (2011), effective presentation helps learners
understand the meaning and use of new grammar structures and provides
them with opportunities to practice and apply the structures in context.
In addition, an effective presentation can create a positive learning
environment where learners feel engaged and motivated to learn. Harmer
(2015) notes that well-planned and well-executed presentations can help to
generate interest and curiosity in learners and create a sense of excitement
and anticipation about the new grammar structures being introduced.
There are several strategies and techniques that teachers can use to
present new grammar structures to learners effectively. One strategy is to
use visuals, such as diagrams, pictures, or charts, to help learners visualize
the new grammar structure or rule. According to Ur (2016), visuals can help
make the presentation more engaging and memorable and help learners
better understand the meaning and use of the new structure.
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Another strategy is to use real-life examples or contexts to illustrate the
new grammar structure. According to Thornbury (2017), using authentic
examples helps learners to see the relevance and practical application of the
new structure and can help to increase motivation and interest in the
learning process.
Another effective technique for presentation is to use guided discovery.
Guided discovery involves providing learners with a series of questions or
prompts that lead them to discover the new grammar structure or rule on
their own. As noted by Ellis (2006), guided discovery can effectively
promote learner engagement and increase learner autonomy, as learners are
actively involved in the learning process.
Isolation and explaining
Isolation is the process of separating a specific grammatical structure from a
text or conversation to focus on its form and meaning. This stage is critical
in grammar teaching because it allows learners to see the structure in
isolation, making it easier to understand its form and function. According to
Celce-Murcia and Larsen-Freeman (2011), isolation enables learners to
recognize and understand the grammatical structure before encountering it
in a real-life situation. This stage also helps learners identify the rules
governing the structure and how it functions in the language.
After isolating a grammatical structure, the next stage is to explain its
form, meaning, and use in the language. According to Ur (1999), providing
a clear and concise explanation of the grammar structure is essential for
learners to understand its function in the language. This explanation should
include examples demonstrating the structure's use and highlighting any
exceptions or irregularities.
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PRACTICAL PART
Several effective strategies can be used to implement isolation and
explanation in grammar teaching. One strategy is to use authentic materials,
such as songs, poems, or stories, to introduce the grammatical structure in
context. This gives learners a meaningful and engaging way to learn the
structure and its use in real-life situations.
Another effective strategy is to use visuals, such as diagrams or charts,
to illustrate the structure's form and function. This can help learners to
visualize the structure and its rules, making it easier to understand and
remember.
In addition, using a deductive approach, where the teacher presents the
rule first and then provides examples, can effectively explain the
grammatical structure. This approach helps learners to understand the rule's
form and function before applying it in context.
Practice
Practice is the phase in grammar teaching and learning that provides
learners with opportunities to use the target language structures or rules they
have learned in context. Practice helps learners to consolidate their
knowledge and develop the ability to use grammar accurately and fluently in
real-life situations. According to Larsen-Freeman (2017), "Practice is
essential for developing automaticity, which means that learners can
produce the language structures without conscious effort or attention to
form" (p. 103).
One effective strategy for grammar practice is controlled practice.
Controlled practice helps learners to practise using the target grammar
accurately and build confidence in their ability to use the language
structures correctly. The controlled practice involves providing learners with
structured activities focusing on specific grammar rules or structures
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(Larsen-Freeman & Anderson, 2011). Controlled practice is often used in
the early stages of language learning to provide learners with a solid
foundation of the language's basic structures. These activities can include
fill-in-the-blank exercises, matching activities, and sentence completion
tasks.
Drills are a specific type of controlled practice that focuses on
developing automaticity and accuracy in using specific language structures
or vocabulary. Drills typically involve repetitive and focused exercises that
require learners to produce specific responses. Drills can be divided into
several categories based on different criteria. One common way of
categorizing drills is based on their degree of structure or control, which can
range from highly controlled to less controlled. According to Harmer
(2007), drills can be divided into the following categories:
• Mechanical drills: These are drills that involve the repetition of
a specific language item in a highly structured and controlled
way. Examples include substitution drills, where learners
replace one element of a sentence with another (e.g., "He drinks
coffee in the morning" becomes "He drinks tea in the
morning"), and transformation drills, where learners change the
form or structure of a sentence (e.g., "I am a teacher" becomes
"Are you a teacher?").
• Meaningful drills: These are drills that involve the use of
language in a more meaningful context but still with a degree of
control. Examples include information gap activities, where
learners work in pairs to exchange information to complete a
task (e.g., describing a picture to a partner), and guided roleplay
activities, where learners are given a specific situation to
act out (e.g., ordering food in a restaurant).
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• Communicative drills: These are drills that involve using
language in a more communicative and authentic context, with
less control. Examples include problem-solving activities,
where learners work together to find a solution to a real-world
problem (e.g., planning a trip), and free conversation activities,
where learners are given a topic and are expected to have a
natural conversation.
Contrasting the controlled practice, free or independent practice is the
most advanced type of grammar practice and involves learners using
language to express their ideas, feelings, and opinions (Lightbown & Spada,
2013). It is a practice where the learners have complete control over the
language input and output. In free practice, the learners are allowed to use
the language they have learned more authentically and communicatively.
Free practice activities involve open-ended exercises allowing learners to
use their creativity and critical thinking skills to produce language.
Examples of free practice exercises include debates, presentations, and
writing assignments.
Though the communicative drill and free practice may seem almost
identical, the main difference between a communicative drill and free
grammar practice is the level of control over learners' language. In a
communicative drill, learners are given a specific task or scenario that
requires them to use the target language in a particular way. The focus is on
using the language in context and meaningfully rather than simply
memorizing or repeating language forms.
Learners are typically given a range of exercises or activities to choose
from, and they have more freedom to experiment with the language and use
it in their way. In contrast, free grammar practice allows learners to use the
target language in a more open-ended way. This can benefit learners who
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want to explore the language more deeply and develop their own style and
approach to using it.
Another important difference is the level of scaffolding or support
provided to learners. In a communicative drill, learners are typically given
more guidance and support to complete the task or achieve the goal. This
might include examples, prompts, or other types of support that help
learners use the language correctly and meaningfully. In contrast, free
grammar practice often requires learners to rely on their knowledge and
skills and take more responsibility for their own learning.
Overall, both communicative drills and free grammar practice have
their place in language learning. Communicative drills help learners with
focused practice and opportunities to use the language in context. In
contrast, free grammar practice allows learners to explore the language more
deeply and develop their own style and approach.
In conclusion, the presentation, isolation, explanation, and practice
phases are critical to effective grammar teaching and learning. Presentation
sets the foundation for learners to understand and use new grammar
structures accurately and effectively, while isolation and explanation help
learners recognize and understand the grammatical structure before
encountering it in a real-life situation. The practice provides learners with
opportunities to use the target language structures or rules they have learned
in context, which helps consolidate their knowledge and develop the ability
to use grammar accurately and fluently in real-life situations. Implementing
effective strategies and techniques, such as using visuals, authentic
materials, guided discovery, and controlled and independent practice, can
enhance these phases and facilitate learner engagement, motivation, and
autonomy. By incorporating these strategies into their teaching practices,
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language teachers can help their learners develop the necessary skills to use
grammar accurately and fluently in communication.
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3 Practical Part
Lower secondary schools in the Czech Republic use various coursebooks
for English language teaching and learning. Most of them have been
designed by English authors and published by international publishing
houses. However, there are some that have been prepared by Czech authors
and published by Czech publishing houses. The way the English
coursebooks present grammar may vary as some of them may focus on drill
activities more, and others may prefer communicative activities.
Nevertheless, most of the coursebooks combine grammar and functional
syllabuses with nuances concerning the succession of grammar structures.
The practical part aims to use comparative methods to determine the
extent to which the coursebooks differ in terms of teaching grammar, what
methods of presentation and teaching of grammar are used in the
coursebooks, whether controlled or free grammar practice is dominant,
whether the grammatical syllabuses of the coursebooks differ, and to discuss
to what extent these differences can affect the overall learning process.
The specific categories the practical part focuses on in the analysis of
the coursebooks include grammar syllabuses, methods of presenting new
grammar, types of grammar practice activities, design of grammar practice
activities and frequency of grammar practice activities.
The research questions include:
• How do the coursebooks differ in terms of teaching grammar?
• What methods of presentation and teaching of grammar are
used in the coursebooks?
• Is controlled or free grammar practice dominant in the
coursebooks?
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• Do the grammatical syllabuses of the coursebooks differ?
The ultimate goal of the thesis is to discuss to what extent the
differences might affect the overall learning process.
For the purpose of the thesis, the author has chosen three sets of ELT
coursebooks. The series of coursebooks are Project, Your Space, and
Bloggers. As there are no relevant studies examining the popularity of
individual English coursebook titles in Czech schools, the selection of
coursebooks for this thesis primarily relied on the approval list of
coursebooks from the Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sports. According
to Schmidtova's (2017) questionnaire survey, eighty-two out of one hundred
teachers use the Project coursebook series for teaching English in Czech
schools. For this reason and the author's personal experience, the Project
series was selected. Another set of coursebooks selected is the Your Space
series, which the author uses in their teaching practice at the school where
they teach. Both series are written by English authors and published by
English publishing houses. The third series, Bloggers, represents
coursebooks written by Czech authors. It was chosen based on a
recommendation from the Czech School Inspectorate and some of the
author's colleagues who use and recommend this coursebook.
The practical part of the thesis deals with the analysis and comparison
of the selected coursebook series. First, it describes the selected coursebook
series. Second, it compares the grammar syllabuses of the series in terms of
content and continuity, focusing on grammatical tenses. Finally, it compares
the presentation and teaching of the past simple tense in the selected series
of coursebooks, including the analysis of grammar practice. The results are
then discussed and interpreted in a separate chapter.
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3.1 The Project Series
The Project series is a well-designed and comprehensive coursebook series
for teenage and young adult ESL learners. Written by Tom Hutchinson and
published by Oxford University Press, the series consists of six levels, from
beginner to upper-intermediate, and is aimed at learners aged twelve to
eighteen. Each level is divided into eight themed units, covering a wide
range of relevant and interesting topics, such as social media, global issues,
and pop culture.
The coursebook combines grammar and a functional syllabus, using an
inductive approach to teach grammar. Based on a specific text, learners
derive rules for creating and using new grammar structures and then practice
them in guided exercises. In these exercises, the learners acquire and
consolidate the new grammar structures and then use them in
communicative exercises, which include language skills such as reading,
speaking, listening, or writing. Each unit contains activities that cover all
language skills, allowing learners to not only practice grammar and
vocabulary but also develop their ability to understand and express their
thoughts (Hutchinson, 2017).
Since the coursebook and its activities emphasise interaction as both
the means and goal of the learning process, the Project series can be
described as communicative coursebooks using the communicative method
(Hutchinson, 2017). Each unit works with a text connected to the lesson's
main topic. These texts usually present new grammar structures and are
followed with exercises and activities to consolidate and practice the new
grammar. Most texts are also recorded so that learners can develop both
reading and listening skills. New vocabulary is always presented in the form
of pictures, and the new vocabulary is then practised in connection with the
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new grammar structures in each unit. There are also exercises focusing on
pronunciation (O'Keeffe, McCarthy, & Carter, 2007).
Each unit includes a revision page that allows learners to revise and
review what they have learned, allowing teachers to see whether any further
practice is needed. At the end of each unit, learners create projects on
various topics, using vocabulary and grammar they have learned in the unit
in practice. The projects also allow learners to talk and write about their
own lives, providing an opportunity to practice the language in a meaningful
and authentic way (Tomlinson, 2013).
The series has been in publication for over a decade and has received
positive reviews for its engaging content, functional language focus, and
multimedia resources (Tomlinson, 2013). The series has also been
recognized with awards, including the ELTons Award for Innovation in
Learner Resources.
The Project series is widely used in schools, language institutes, and
private tutoring settings, particularly in countries where English is not the
first language (O'Keeffe, McCarthy, & Carter, 2007). It has a strong
presence in Europe, Asia, and the Middle East and is used by both native
and non-native English speakers.
In addition, the series has a supportive online community, with many
resources and activities available on the Oxford University Press website
and other online platforms (Hsieh & Tsai, 2015). This community provides
further opportunities for learners and teachers to engage with the
coursebooks and connect with others who are using the same materials.
Overall, the series' engaging and relevant content, functional language
focus, and multimedia resources make it an effective tool for language
learning and development. The series is supported by teacher's guides,
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which provide detailed lesson plans, additional activities, and assessment
materials, as well as guidance on how to adapt the course to suit learners
with different needs and learning styles.
3.2 The Your Space Series
Your Space is a four-level coursebook series designed for pupils from 6t h
to
9t h
grades of lower secondary schools. The series is published by Cambridge
University Press and elaborated in accordance with the Framework
Education Programme for English as a first foreign language. The level of
language ranges from A l to A2+, according to CEFR. The series aims at
learners who want to develop their language skills for use in everyday
situations.
The coursebooks are divided into eight units, each of which covers a
different theme. These themes include personal interests, communication,
travel, social issues, and more. Each unit begins with a pre-reading activity
that helps learners activate their prior knowledge about the topic. This is
followed by a reading text, which is accompanied by comprehension
questions, vocabulary exercises, and other activities that help learners
develop their reading skills.
After the reading text, there is a grammar and language focus section
that introduces and practises language structures and vocabulary related to
the theme of the unit. The grammar and language focus sections are
presented in a clear and concise manner and are accompanied by practice
exercises that help learners develop their grammar and vocabulary skills.
The coursebook combines grammatical and functional syllabuses.
Grammar is presented using the inductive approach. First, each unit contains
various activities providing learners with enough examples of the target
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grammar structures without referring to any rules, developing mostly
reading and listening skills. These activities should encourage learners to
acquire the grammar structures naturally and only then deduce the grammar
rules on their own. Then, speaking activities are presented to encourage
learners to produce language using the new grammar structures. At the end
of each unit, there is a part called Language space that provides learners
with exercises to practise the target grammar structures. However, no
grammar rules and descriptions of how to make or use the grammar
structures are included, as they are listed only in the overview of grammar at
the end of the coursebook.
In addition to the grammar and language focus section, each unit also
includes a speaking and listening section that provides learners with
opportunities to practise their communication skills. These sections include
role-plays, discussions, and other activities that encourage learners to use
the language they have learned in a meaningful way.
The main advantage of the coursebooks, according to their authors, is
the adaptation to the specific needs of Czech learners. The coursebooks
consider the most frequent mistakes of Czech learners in Cambridge
language exams and provide learners with an alphabetical list of vocabulary
with Czech translation.
One of the strengths of Your Space is that it incorporates a variety of
learning strategies and activities that appeal to different learning styles. For
example, there are visual aids, such as photographs and illustrations, which
help learners understand the reading texts and the grammar and language
focus sections. There are also audio recordings of the reading texts and
speaking and listening sections that allow learners to practise their listening
skills.
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Another strength of the series is that it includes a range of authentic
materials, such as news articles, interviews, and advertisements, that expose
learners to real-life situations and language use. This helps learners develop
their ability to understand and use English in a variety of contexts.
Overall, Your Space is a comprehensive and engaging ELT coursebook
series that is suitable for young adult and adult learners of English. Its wellstructured
units, clear presentation of language structures, and variety of
learning strategies and activities make it an effective tool for developing
language skills for academic, vocational, and everyday purposes.
3.3 The Bloggers series
Bloggers is a series of English coursebooks for pupils from fifth to ninth
grades of lower secondary schools. It is elaborated in accordance with the
Framework Education Programme for English as a first foreign language.
The level of language ranges from A l to A2+. The main advantages of this
set are mainly gradual progression, internal differentiation and exercises
adapted to the needs of pupils with learning disabilities. The coursebook
offers a large variety of activities and exercises, from attractive mind maps,
projects using modern technology (making a poster, filming a video,
preparing a presentation), interesting videos and games, and up-to-date
topics.
The curriculum is divided into units based on topics and grammar that
follow according to difficulty and succession. The coursebook combines
both grammatical and functional syllabuses, and grammar is presented using
the inductive approach. The aim of the coursebook, according to its authors,
is to develop communicative skills in both oral and written language. Thus,
the coursebook uses communicative approach.
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Each unit of the coursebook involves six parts with a clear and set
structure. The introductory page to each unit focuses on the topic and main
character of the unit, presenting the relevant facts concerning the topic,
including an authentic video. Each unit is separated into four double-page
parts presenting grammar, vocabulary and exercises with an emphasis on
speaking and listening skills.
To develop reading and writing skills, the coursebook offers an
immense variety of different texts, for instance, emails, blogs, comics, or
dialogues, complemented with authentic texts. Learners then write similar
texts to those they have read and worked with during reading tasks, always
following step-by-step instructions on how to proceed.
New vocabulary is presented by using pictures in each part of the unit.
Pictures are used to supply visual support for vocabulary acquisition and
correspond to the words in the dictionary at the end of the workbook. The
pictures can also be used for conversational pair or group activities.
What is different about the Bloggers series compared to Project and
Your Space is the fact that coursebooks one to four (grades five to eight)
cover all the target grammar structures for levels A l and A2 according to
Common European Framework of Reference for Languages and Framework
Education Programme for English as a first foreign language. The
coursebook for grade nine (the fifth level of the series) then revises all the
grammar structures from previous levels and reinforces learners' language
abilities by using the grammar structures in practice, focusing on speaking,
listening, reading and writing skills. The content part of the coursebook does
not even state what grammar is revised in each unit, as it only states what
the topic, vocabulary, useful phrases, and reading and writing tasks are.
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3.4 Comparison of Grammar Syllabuses
This chapter deals with the grammar syllabuses of the aforementioned
coursebooks. The aim is to compare the syllabuses and analyse whether they
differ and if so, in what way. The chapter also focuses on the choice and
succession of grammar structures.
First, it is important to state what language ability and grammar
structures a grammar syllabus should include at certain levels. For this
purpose, the Council of Europe issued a document called the Common
European Framework of Reference for Languages, which is "a transparent,
coherent and comprehensive basis for the elaboration of language
syllabuses and curriculum guidelines, the design of teaching and learning
materials, and the assessment of foreign language proficiency" (Council of
Europe, n.d.).
This document is used as the international standard for describing
language ability. It describes language ability on a six-level scale, from
beginners (Al) to proficient users (C2). As this thesis focuses on A l and A2
level coursebooks, the Council of Europe describes that an A l user can:
• understand and use familiar everyday expressions and very basic
phrases aimed at the satisfaction of needs of a concrete type
• show only a limited control of a few simple grammatical structures
and sentence patterns in a memorised repertoire
• introduce him/herself and others and can ask and answer questions
about personal details such as where he/she lives, people he/she
knows and things he/she has
• interact in a simple way provided the other person talks slowly and
clearly and is prepared to help
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, whereas an A2 user can:
• understand sentences and frequently used expressions related
to areas of most immediate relevance (e.g., very basic personal
and family information, shopping, local geography,
employment)
• use some simple grammatical structures correctly, but still
systematically makes basic mistakes
• communicate in simple and routine tasks requiring a simple
and direct exchange of information on familiar and routine
matters
• describe in simple terms aspects of his/her background,
immediate environment and matters in areas of immediate need
(Council of Europe, n.d.)
The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages
describes all the grammar structures for each language level in a document
called English Profile. The English Profile is a collaborative project between
the Council of Europe and Cambridge English Language Assessment. It
aims to provide detailed descriptions of the English language abilities of
learners at different levels of the Common European Framework of
Reference for Languages (CEFR), which is a widely recognized framework
for assessing language proficiency.
The English Profile project involves collecting and analysing data from
a range of sources, including language tests, learner corpora (large
collections of texts produced by language learners), and expert judgments.
Based on this data, the project produces profiles of learners' language
abilities at each level of the CEFR, including descriptions of the
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grammatical structures, vocabulary, and functions that learners are likely to
be able to use at each level.
The complete list of all grammatical categories for each level is quite
exhaustive and can be retrievable from the official website
www.englishprofile.org. For the purpose of the thesis, the following table
includes a simplified list of the grammar structures that A l and A2 language
users should learn and be able to use correctly:
Table 1
Grammar structures at the Al and A2 levels according to CEFR
A l A2
Nouns Past
simple
singular and
Past simple
singular and
tense -
plural,plural,
affirmative,
countable
affirmative,
negative,
and
negative,
and
uncountable
interrogativ
, proper and
interrogativ
, proper and
e forms
common
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A l A2
Articles -
definite,
indefinite,
and zero;
use of
articles with
singular,
plural,
countable
and
uncountable
nouns
Past
continuous
tense
affirmative,
negative,
and
interrogativ
e forms
Pronouns -
personal,
subject,
object,
possessive,
and
reflexive
pronouns
Future
simple tense
- will and
going to
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A l A2
Adjectives
- basic
forms,
comparative
superlative,
and
adjective
order
Present
perfect
tense
affirmative,
negative,
and
interrogativ
e forms
Verbs -
infinitives,
base forms,
past tense,
present
perfect, and
future with
going to
Comparativ
e and
superlative
forms of
adjectives short
and
long
adjectives,
irregular
forms
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A2A l
Present
continuous
tense -
affirmative,
negative,
and
interrogativ
e forms
Present
simple tense
affirmative,
negative,
and
interrogativ
e forms
Adverbs of
frequency -
always,
usually,
often,
sometimes,
rarely, and
never
Adverbs of
manner,
time,
frequency,
degree, and
place
Gerunds
and
infinitives with
or
without
"to", after
verbs and
prepositions
Conditional
sentences -
first,
second, and
third
conditionals
, mixed
conditionals
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A l A2
Prepositions
of time and
Imperatives
place - in,
on, at, to
Modal
verbs - can,
could, may,
might,
must, shall,
should, will,
and would
3.4.1 Grammar Syllabuses of the Selected Coursebooks
The following table contains all the grammar structures in the correct order
as they follow one another in the Bloggers, Project and Your Space
coursebooks. It is important to say that the number of coursebooks in each
series differs.
The Your Space series contains four coursebooks, each intended for
one grade of the lower secondary school, grades six to nine. The Project
series contains five coursebooks, while the first part is intended for grade
five of primary school and thus covers language teaching in grades five to
nine. The Bloggers series also contains five coursebooks. However, the
authors state that their use can be adapted to the learners' language level
without omitting any of the target grammar structures for grades five to
nine, as mentioned in chapter 3.3. In the case of a more linguistically gifted
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class, it is possible to include the first level of the series already in grade
five of primary school and finish the series with level five in grade nine. In
the case of a language-weaker class, the first level can be used in grade six
and therefore finish with level four of the series in grade nine.
Appendix A (pp. 124-133) contains all the grammar structures in the
correct order as they follow one another in the Bloggers, Project and Your
Space coursebooks, levels one to four in the case of Your Space, and levels
one to five in the case of Bloggers and Project.
As mentioned before, Bloggers and Project aim their first levels at
grade five, unlike Your Space which introduces its level one coursebook for
grade six of lower secondary school. Therefore, when comparing the
general grammar syllabuses of the three series listed in the table above, it is
essential to consider the grades of lower secondary school rather than the
level of the coursebook, as, for example, both Project 1 and Bloggers 1 are
aimed at grade five and thus can be compared to each other, but not to Your
Space 1 as this coursebook is aimed at grade six.
First, comparing Project 1 and Bloggers 1, both syllabuses cover the
same basic grammar structures, such as affirmative/negative forms of be,
possessive adjectives, and question words. However, Bloggers 1 goes
further to include prepositions of place and time, irregular plurals, and
possessive pronouns. Conversely, Project 1 includes positions of adjectives,
which are not in Bloggers 1. The sequencing of grammar structures is
relatively similar in both courses, with the present simple following the
affirmative/negative forms of be and possessive adjectives.
Second, Your Space 1 shares some similarities with Project 2 and
Bloggers 2, including there is/there are, the present simple, and have got in
all forms. However, Project 2 and Bloggers 2 also introduce ordinal
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numbers, adverbs of frequency, and subject and object pronouns. In
contrast, Your Space 1 covers question words, irregular plurals, and
prepositions of time and place. The sequencing in these courses is relatively
similar, with there is/there are and have got introduced before the present
simple.
Third, Your Space 2, Bloggers 3, and Project 3 all introduce the
present continuous and present simple but with different foci. Your Space 2
focuses on the use of these tenses for talking about the future, while
Bloggers 3 covers their use for talking about actions happening now. Project
3 includes additional grammar structures such as would like to, may/might,
and the infinitive of purpose. The sequencing of grammar structures is
similar in these coursebooks, with the present continuous introduced before
can and the past simple.
Fourth, Your Space 3, Bloggers 4, and Project 4 all include the past
simple, adverbs of manner, and prepositions of time. However, they differ in
their sequencing and focus. Your Space 3 emphasises the use of be going to
and will for prediction, while Bloggers 4 and Project 4 focus on reported
speech and the passive voice. Project 4 also includes zero conditional and
relative pronouns.
Finally, Your Space 4 covers a range of grammar structures, including
present and past passive, question tags, and general language review. Project
5 and Bloggers 5 also cover a range of grammar structures but with a focus
on more complex language, such as modals and conditionals.
Going more into detail, the following paragraphs focus only on the
verb tenses and their presentation and teaching in the series of coursebooks.
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3.4.2 Present Simple and Present Continuous
The three coursebooks series, Your Space, Project, and Bloggers, cover the
present simple and present continuous tenses in the first levels of the series,
using similar grammatical concepts, approaches and focus. They provide a
comprehensive teaching of both tenses, starting with the present simple and
gradually progressing to the present continuous. They cover both tenses in
detail and refine the learners' understanding as they progress through the
book.
In terms of teaching the present simple tense, all three books cover its
affirmative, negative, and question forms and its usage in describing
habitual actions, routines, and permanent states. The coursebooks introduce
the present simple with the verb to be in its long and short form, followed
by personal and possessive pronouns. Additionally, Your Space and
Bloggers cover articles with the present simple, while Project focuses on
possessive adjectives.
Similarly, all three books cover the present continuous tense, including
its positive, negative, and question forms. They introduce the present
continuous tense after covering the basic concepts of the present simple,
describing its usage in talking about actions happening at the moment of
speaking. Only then do they contrast the present continuous tense with the
present simple tense.
All three books cover additional grammatical concepts, such as
possessive pronouns, comparatives and superlatives, countable and
uncountable nouns, adverbs of frequency, and stative verbs in the present
tenses.
In conclusion, Your Space provides a comprehensive teaching of both
tenses, gradually progressing from the present simple to the present
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continuous. Project focuses on emphasising the difference between the
tenses and their usage in various situations. Bloggers introduces the present
simple first and then moves on to the present continuous, refining the
learners' understanding of both tenses as they progress through the book.
3.4.3 Past Simple and Continuous
The past simple and past continuous tenses are among the most common
tenses used in English language communication. Therefore, it is essential to
understand when and how to teach these tenses to non-native English
speakers. According to Celce-Murcia and Larsen-Freeman (2011), past
simple and past continuous tenses should be introduced to learners after they
have developed a basic understanding of present tenses. Typically, this
would occur after the learners have been exposed to basic present tenses for
several weeks or months. Learners who have developed a good
understanding of present tenses are better equipped to learn past tenses.
All three series follow the above-mentioned procedure, introducing the
past simple tense after thorough exposure to present simple and present
continuous tenses. They all start with the past simple of the verb to be and
then cover the past simple of regular and irregular verbs.
On the contrary, both Bloggers and Project introduce past simple in
their coursebooks for grade six and past continuous in coursebooks for
grade seven. Your Space introduces past simple in its second coursebook for
grade seven, contrasting it with present tense. Past continuous is then
introduced for the first time in the third coursebook for grade eight.
Although there is a difference in sequencing the presentation of past
simple and past continuous tenses among the three series of coursebooks,
they all introduce the past tenses early in the learning process, and learners
are taught how to form and use the tenses correctly. They teach the past
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PRACTICAL PART
tenses systematically in a simple and easy-to-understand manner, suitable
for beginner and pre-intermediate learners, introducing the regular and
irregular forms of the past simple tense and using the past continuous tense
to describe actions in progress in the past.
3.4.4 Future with will and going to
Although all three coursebooks teach expressing the future in their
syllabuses using the same specific grammar structures and approaches, be
going to, will, and present continuous, the sequence differs.
Your Space introduces the future at the end of the second coursebook
(grade seven) for the first time, presenting the use of present continuous for
future arrangements, may, might, should and would like. In Your Space
3 (grade eight), learners study the use of all forms of be going to for plans
and predictions, followed by will for prediction and decisions.
A whole unit focuses on discussing the future, using the three grammar
structures that make learners realise when to use them correctly.
In Project series, it is the structure be going to that is discussed first and
presented at the end of the second coursebook (grade six). In the following
coursebook, Project 3, learners discover the use of will for decisions and
contrast it to the use of be going to for future intentions. Only in the last
coursebook for grade nine do the learners discuss the differences between
the use of will, be going to, and present continuous for the future.
Learners using the Bloggers series discuss the future for the first time
at the end of the third coursebook for grade seven, learning to talk about
future arrangements using the present continuous tense. In the following
unit, they learn how to use be going to and will. At the beginning of the
following coursebook for grade eight, learners reinforce the knowledge of
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PRACTICAL PART
future forms in the form of revision from the previous coursebook, followed
by the structure will have to later in Bloggers 4.
3.4.5 Present Perfect
The present perfect is a grammatical tense used to describe actions or events
that occurred at an unspecified time in the past, with a connection to the
present (Kolln et al., 2016). It is a challenging tense to teach to Czech
learners, as it is not found in the Czech language, and its uses can be subtle
and nuanced. While there may be some variation across A2 coursebooks,
many coursebooks tend to introduce the present perfect tense after learners
have been introduced to other verb tenses and grammar structures such as
the present simple and continuous, past simple and continuous, and future
forms using be going to, will, and present continuous (Thornbury, 2017;
Harmer, 2015). This sequence of instruction is generally recommended by
language teaching experts as it allows learners to first build a foundation of
knowledge with more basic structures before moving on to more complex
structures such as the present perfect tense (Lightbown & Spada, 2013).
The same applies to the three series of coursebooks discussed in the
thesis. All series introduce the present perfect tense in their coursebooks for
grade eight, starting with the present perfect of regular verbs, the use of
since and for, ever and never, still, yet, and already, followed with the
present perfect of irregular verbs, negative and questions. Also, the present
perfect tense is immediately contrasted with the past simple tense and its
use, which makes it easier for learners to understand and realise how and
when to use both tenses.
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3.4.6 Conclusion
The three series of coursebooks analysed in this thesis share notable
similarities in the sequencing of grammar structures. However, there are
also discernible differences in the emphasis and extent of coverage of
different grammar points. These differences can be seen in the inclusion or
exclusion of specific grammar points and the sequencing of these points
throughout the courses.
All three series introduce the present simple and continuous tenses
before the past tenses, with a focus on the affirmative, negative and question
forms. They also cover additional grammatical concepts such as possessive
pronouns, comparatives and superlatives, countable and uncountable nouns,
adverbs of frequency, and stative verbs in the present tenses.
However, there are also differences in sequencing and emphasis. Your
Space provides a comprehensive teaching of both present tenses, starting
with the present simple and gradually progressing to the present continuous.
In contrast, Project emphasises the difference between the tenses and their
usage in various situations. Bloggers introduces the present simple first and
then moves on to the present continuous, refining the learners'
understanding of both tenses as they progress through the book.
Regarding the past tenses, all three series introduce the past simple
tense after thorough exposure to present simple and present continuous
tenses. However, the sequencing of past simple and past continuous tenses
differs among the three series. Bloggers and Project introduce the past
simple in their coursebooks for grade six and past continuous in
coursebooks for grade seven. Your Space introduces past simple in its
second coursebook for grade seven, contrasting it with the present tense.
Past continuous is then introduced in the third coursebook for grade eight.
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Finally, all three coursebooks teach expressing the future using specific
grammar structures such as be going to, will and present continuous.
However, the sequencing and emphasis vary. Your Space introduces the
future at the end of the second coursebook (grade seven) for the first time,
presenting the present continuous for future arrangements, may, might,
should and would like. In contrast, Project introduces the structure be going
to first and contrasts it with will for decisions. Bloggers teaches the present
continuous tense for talking about future arrangements first and then
introduces be going to and will.
3.5 Comparison of Presenting and Teaching the Past
Simple Tense in the Selected Series of Coursebooks
This chapter compares the teaching of the past simple tense in all three
series.
The past simple tense has been chosen as one of the basic tenses taught
in lower secondary schools and is usually a completely new structure for
learners transitioning from primary to lower secondary school, causing
difficulties. Additionally, this tense is frequently used in everyday
communication, making it essential in teaching English.
The instruction of this tense can be divided into three parts. First, the
past tense of the verb to be is introduced, followed by the past tense of
regular verbs, and finally, the past tense of irregular verbs. The objective is
to determine whether the teaching of this tense differs across the
coursebooks and, if so, in what ways. Attention is given to both presentation
and practice. Specifically, this chapter examines whether the past simple
tense is taught using an inductive or deductive approach and what types of
exercises are included for reinforcing this tense.
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Furthermore, it is examined whether communicative or controlled
exercises are predominant and how the coursebooks work with the meaning
and usage of the past simple tense. The sequence of the exercises and the
continuity with the present simple tense, necessary for understanding the
past simple tense, is also considered. Based on this analysis, the grammar
presentation is described in the following chapter.
3.5.1 Your Space
In the Your Space series, learners first encounter the past simple tense in the
second coursebook intended for seventh graders in the second unit. The
preceding unit focuses on expressing the present using the present simple
and continuous tenses. A total of three entire units in this coursebook are
devoted to the past simple tense, and learners then revisit it in the third part
of the series intended for eighth graders.
The second unit of the Your Space 2 coursebook presents a photo story
featuring the heroine Poppy, who accompanies learners throughout the
book. First, learners listen to a recording of text messages that Poppy sends
to her friends, which describe what they did over the weekend. Then,
learners read the messages and fill in a table with information about each
child and what they did last weekend. The table contains pre-written
sentences using the past simple tense of the verb to be. Learners complete
the missing information about where the children were. This exercise is
followed by a table called Language focus, which contains six sentences
using the simple past tense of the verb to be. The verb to be is highlighted in
bold for clarity. The table includes the forms was, were, wasn't, weren't in
positive and negative sentences, and the form were is used also in a yes/no
question and then in a wh-question. Learners study the table and then
complete six sentences with the correct form of the verb to be according to
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the symbols for positive or negative sentences in parentheses at the end of
each sentence. Here is an extract from the exercise:
Read Language focus. Then complete the sentences with was, wasn't,
were or weren't.
1. I was at the cinema last night. (S)
2. Sarah and Abi ...at work yesterday. (S)
3. ... you at the swimming pool yesterday?
4. I... at school on Monday morning, ( x )
(Hobbs & Keddle, 2012, p. 26)
The introductory double page is then concluded with two speaking
exercises. In the first exercise, learners work in pairs and tell each other
where they were in a given time in the past. In the second exercise, learners
are asked to provide information about their partner from the pair to the rest
of the class.
The approach to grammar instruction in this introductory double-page
first presents a text and a listening exercise using the target grammar
structures, which are then presented in a clear table. Learners practise
accuracy by filling in the correct form of the simple past tense of the verb to
be. Afterwards, learners have the opportunity to practise the given
grammatical structure freely in conversation about what they did in the past.
The following double page is called Language focus and is dedicated
mainly to practising language accuracy. It contains a table with the correct
forms of the simple past tense of the verb to be in all persons, positive and
negative sentences, and yes/no questions with short positive and negative
answers, along with sample sentences that learners can use whenever they
are unsure of the correct form of the verb to be. In ten exercises, learners
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practise using the simple past tense of the verb to be in various forms. There
are exercises in which learners match pictures with sentences in the simple
past tense and others in which they have to arrange chronological
expressions of the past in order. There is also an exercise in which learners
complete sentences in the simple past tense with appropriate time
expressions and another in which they must put verbs into the correct form.
The third unit of the coursebook is devoted to expressing the future
using the present continuous tense, and the book returns to the past in the
fourth unit. In the first part of the fourth unit, learners review what they can
already say in the past. They do this by reading and retelling a photo story in
their own words. With the help of the Language focus table, they then
complete the past tense forms of the verb to be in an email related to the
photo story as a review exercise. The Language focus section, like in
previous lessons, presents a table with an overview of the grammatical
forms covered, in this case, the past tense of the verb to be and the there
was/were structure. To reinforce and practise these structures, learners can
access guided exercises focused on accuracy, which revisit the past tense
forms already covered.
In the second part of the fourth unit, learners learn about irregular
verbs in an article about holiday disasters. As in previous sections, they read
and listen to the story first, which includes many regular and irregular verbs.
Then, they read a table with an overview of the grammar rules and complete
guided exercises focused on accuracy. The exercises to reinforce and
practice these grammar rules include five guided exercises and two free
ones in the form of writing and speaking. Regarding the exercises in the
Language focus section, guided and free exercises are included. However,
guided exercises focused on the accuracy of form and meaning prevail, such
as completing verbs in the correct form of the past simple tense in gaps,
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matching exercises, or rewriting sentences from the present to the past tense.
Free exercises include speaking and writing exercises in which learners
describe their holiday experiences, such as "Write sentences about your
holiday" or "Work in groups. Talk about your holidays" (Hobbs & Keddle,
2012, p. 53). After the reading and listening section, in which learners are
asked to write a short story about their holidays according to a given outline,
the coursebook introduces the use of the simple past tense in the negative
form in an article, which includes an audio recording. Learners write a few
sentences about what they did not do the day before to practise using the
simple past tense in the negative form.
The presentation of the present simple is concluded in section 5B,
where the coursebook focuses on forming questions, short answers, and
using interrogative pronouns. To consolidate and practise the grammar
learned in previous lessons, the Language space section includes more free
exercises. These are group activities in pairs or larger groups, where learners
discuss their experiences and past events. Learners must complete the
conversation with the correct form of the past simple in positive sentences,
negative sentences, questions, and answers. In the final exercise, learners
can test their knowledge and ability to use the present simple in all forms by
completing a long conversation between a grandchild and their
grandparents.
In conclusion, the Your Space 2 coursebook presents new grammatical
structures through articles, comics, photo stories, or spoken dialogues. In the
language space section, learners have ample opportunity to practice and
consolidate their new knowledge. Learners become familiar with the given
structure, which is then introduced in the Language focus table, along with
the rules for its usage. They then practice the structure in guided exercises,
usually in the form of sentence completion tasks, after which they can
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reinforce their knowledge and usage in free or guided writing or speaking
exercises. The exercises alternate between written, listening, and speaking
exercises, as well as controlled, guided, and free exercises. Free exercises
include group debates or written exercises on a particular topic. However,
guided exercises such as role-plays, discussions, and simulations
predominate.
3.5.2 Project
The past simple tense is covered in the third unit of Project 2 coursebook for
grade six. It then reappears in the first lesson of Project 3 for revision and
expansion.
Unit 4 starts with presenting the verb to be in the past tense. There is a
listening and reading exercise that focuses on comprehension. The exercise
describes what two people usually do in a sports centre on Saturday
mornings. However, there were no lessons last weekend, and the two people
discuss where they were instead in a dialogue. Based on the dialogue,
learners are expected to answer a question: "Where were these people last
night?" (Project 2, p. 32). It is clear from the dialogue that this is the past
tense of the verb to be, contrasted with the present tense of the same verb.
Reading and listening to the dialogue, learners acquire the structure of the
past tense of the verb to be in affirmative, negative, and question forms and
then complete a table called Grammar on the following page. In this table,
they complete the verb to be in the correct form for the corresponding
person in both positive and negative sentences. All the persons for which
learners must complete the correct form of the verb to be appear in the
dialogue in the previous exercise. Subsequently, learners are instructed to
make eight sentences with the table.
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Following the previous exercise, learners engage in a controlled
practice exercise where they are required to fill in the blanks in sentences
with the appropriate forms of was and were, and then transform them into
negative sentences. The exercise concentrates on establishing the correct
grammatical structure, and learners do not necessarily need to comprehend
the meaning of the sentences. This type of exercise is frequently employed
in most coursebooks.
Subsequently, learners utilise the same reading and listening exercise
to acquire skills in constructing questions and providing brief responses
utilizing the verb to be. They complete these rules in another Grammar table
and practice questions and answers in the following exercise. After
completing this exercise, learners are required to practise this dialogue
orally in pairs. The goal is to solidify the form in practice. Here is an extract
from the exercise:
a) "Make the dialogues. Use the cues."
1. Mr Riley /at the sports centre last Saturday?
No
He/ill?
Yes / He / in bed all weekend.
Was Mr Riley at the sports centre last Saturday?
No, he wasn't.
Was he ill?
Yes, he was. He was in bed all weekend.
b) Work with a partner. Practise the dialogues." (Hutchinson, 2018, p.
33)
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PRACTICAL PART
The exercises are arranged from simpler to more complex ones. There
are two other exercises to reinforce the target grammar structure. In the first
one, the focus is on the meaning, and learners complete a given text with
both positive and negative forms of the verb to be into blanks. This article is
linked to another task in which learners must determine whether the
statements are grammatically correct and, if not, correct them. The exercise
focuses on comprehension; learners must know the meaning of the
sentences. Learners then listen and check the correct form of the statement,
learning the correct pronunciation of was, were, wasn't, weren't.
The teaching of the past simple tense continues with the presentation of
the past tense of regular verbs. First, there is a listening comprehension
exercise, and learners tick the problems that happened to the boy during his
holiday. The given sentences describing the boy's problem present some of
the regular verbs in past simple tense in affirmative and negative forms.
Then, learners read a monologue article about the boy's holiday that
contains many regular verbs in the past tense. Based on the article, the
learners put these verbs into the Grammar table with their infinitives. The
table clearly shows the spelling changes of certain verbs when forming the
past tense, providing learners with the correct pronunciation. Learners
indicate which verbs end with -id, -d, or -t sounds. Then they check
according to the recording.
Forming the past tense from regular verbs is then practised in a fill-in
exercise where they put the infinitives into the past tense. This is a
mechanical drill. It is not necessary to know the meaning of the sentences.
Another Grammar table contains the formation of the negative form in
the past tense. The table contains one positive sentence and the same
sentence in the negative. This is followed by the question: "This is the past
simple negative. How do we make it? What part of the verb do we use after
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PRACTICAL PART
didn't?" (Hutchinson, 2018, p. 35). Based on the given sentence, the learners
deduce the rules for forming the negative in the past tense. This is followed
by a mechanical exercise in which positive sentences in the past tense are
transformed into negative ones. The learners do not need to know the
meaning of the sentences. Lastly, there is a speaking and writing exercise in
which learners practice the affirmative, negative and question forms.
Learners are given a set of things found in a man's jacket and a set of regular
verbs in the infinitive. Their task is to create a story about the man, saying
what he did and did not do, using the verbs in the past simple. First, learners
do the task orally and then write.
The third part of the unit continues with the topic of a holiday but
focuses on the past tense of irregular verbs. First, learners listen to a
recording and match past tense sentences with pictures. Then they find the
past forms of given irregular verbs in the sentences. This exercise continues
with a story of a boy who did not enjoy his last holiday. Learners listen to
the story, then read it and discuss why the boy did not like his holiday. They
discuss given statements about the story and decide whether they are true or
false. All the statements contain irregular verbs in the past form. Only then
are learners provided with a table that compares the regular and irregular
verbs, eliciting the difference.
The formation of the negative in the past tense of irregular verbs is
presented in the same form as in the previous section. The table contains
two positive sentences that include irregular verbs in the past tense, and the
same sentences in the negative are next to them. The question for the
learners is: "Look at the table. How do we make the negative with an
irregular verb?" (Hutchinson, 2018, p. 36).
There are two drill exercises where learners only put the given verbs in
brackets into the past tense.
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PRACTICAL PART
In the Reading and Writing section, there are two gapped letter-form
articles, and the learners' task is to complete the gaps with verbs from the
list in the correct form.
Another exercise is: "Complete the sentences with these words: took,
have, take, or had." (Hutchinson, 2018, p. 39). This exercise focuses on the
correct use of the past simple tense and present simple tense forms of the
verbs "take" and "have". It requires learners to choose the appropriate form
of the verb based on the context of the sentence, which indicates their
understanding of the different uses of these verb forms. So, while the
exercise involves understanding the meaning of the words, it also places
emphasis on the accuracy of the verb form used in the sentence.
This is a controlled exercise that focuses on form. In this exercise,
knowing the meaning of the words is necessary.
The fact that learners need to know the meaning of the words in order
to choose the correct form of the verb does not necessarily mean that the
exercise is not focused on form. The exercise aims to reinforce the correct
usage and form of these verbs, even though some meaning-related
knowledge is also required.
The last part of the third unit focuses on all language skills, using the
target grammar structures of past simple of regular and irregular verbs.
Learners are given a comic story; they read it, listen to it, and discuss in
groups what happened in the story. They can do some follow-up grammar
exercises to reinforce the forming of the past simple in affirmative, negative
and question forms. Learners create questions and short answers from given
words in a written exercise. Then they practice these questions and answers
orally in pairs. The goal is to use the form in practice. In the following
exercise, learners create past tense questions for given answers. It is
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necessary to understand the meaning. Then, learners practice the dialogue
orally again.
The whole unit ends with a section called Revision. In this part,
learners read a story about a girl's holiday, complete it with verbs in the past
simple tense, and then arrange pictures in the correct order. This is followed
by a written task in which learners make questions and answer them.
The revision part ends with a project in which learners should describe
their last holiday.
The types of exercises used to practise the past simple tense are varied.
Both guided and communicative exercises are present. However, there is a
prevalence of guided exercises that focus on the form and usage of the past
simple, including regular and irregular verbs, question and negative forms,
and time expressions.
Some of the common guided exercises that prevail in the Project series
include gap-filling exercises, completing sentences with the correct form of
the verbs in brackets, sentence transformation exercises, rewriting sentences
in the given form, and error correction exercises.
On the other hand, the communicative exercises include role-plays,
picture stories, information gap activities, and making dialogues.
Regarding the instructions for individual exercises, it should be noted
that since an English-speaking author writes the Project coursebooks, the
instructions are exclusively in English. The English used in the instructions
is simple and comprehensible, with elementary sentence structures. Each
exercise begins with examples of how to work with it to facilitate
understanding.
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PRACTICAL PART
In conclusion, new grammar structures are generally presented as a
monologue, dialogue, or through listening exercises, utilising an inductive
method of teaching. The Project series, therefore, uses an inductive
approach to teaching grammar, offering a range of accompanying activities
that encourage learners to deduce the rules and meaning of new grammar
structures. This approach follows the following three stages:
1. Learners find sentences in the article that contain
the new grammar structure.
2. In the Grammar table, they complete sentences
with the new grammar structure.
3. They practise the rules in guided exercises that
reinforce their knowledge of the rules.
The inductive approach to grammar is an essential part of the
coursebook methodology. According to Larsen-Freeman and Anderson
(2013), the inductive approach to grammar is an essential part of the
coursebook methodology as it helps learners memorize the grammatical
structure better and also teaches them a strategy to find the information they
need on their own. Moreover, Ellis (2002) argues that the inductive
approach can lead to better retention of grammar structures, more accurate
production of language and also teaches learners a strategy to find the
information they need on their own.
The grammar rules are told by the character Mut from a cartoon story
in the coursebook to make grammar more interesting for learners.
Although the guided practice and fill-in-the-blank drill exercises
predominate, there are some free practice exercises during which learners
can produce the target language as they would in day-to-day language use.
Most exercises are in the form of written exercises, but there are numerous
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exercises in which learners practice dialogues orally in pairs, with the
content already given. At the end of the lesson, there is a project in which
learners check to what extent they understand the target grammar structure
and can use it in practice.
3.5.3 Bloggers
In the Bloggers series, the past simple tense is covered in the last two units,
units four and five of the second coursebook targeted for grade six. It
reappears at the beginning of Bloggers 3 for grade seven as a revision of the
previous book and then in unit 2 before processing to the past continuous
tense.
The first part of unit 4 sets the topic for the whole unit and does not
present any grammar structure. It introduces the topic of travelling,
specifically to New York City, with a presentation of new vocabulary and
some listening and speaking exercises.
The next chapter, 4B, states in its heading that learners will learn to
speak about the past. It presents a table with the positive form of the verb to
be in past simple for all persons, providing some example sentences using
past time expressions.
Next, there is a text message written in both the present simple and the
past simple tense. Learners read the text message, focus on the adjective and
past simple, and decide whether a set of four follow-up sentences is true or
false. Then their task is to write a similar text message to their friend.
Learners then study another table with the negative, question and short
answer form of to be in the past simple. They practise the use of the abovementioned
grammar structures in two guided speaking activities, where they
work in pairs and ask and answer the given questions, for example:
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How was your day?
What was the weather like last week?
Were your parents at work last Monday? (Hrabetova et al., 2018, p. 77)
Finally, learners listen to a dialogue between two friends about their
last holiday and answer comprehension questions.
The following chapter, 4C, starts with an exercise that presents a table
with the infinitives and past simple forms of regular verbs. The instruction
says: "Study the table. What are the rules for making the past simple tense
of the verbs?" (Hrabetova et al., 2018, p. 78). Learners study the table and
then work in groups of three, making a sentence chain using the regular
verbs from the table in past simple.
Having learned what the rules for making the past simple of regular
verbs are, learners read a leaflet about the Island of Hope in New York City.
Their task is to find all the verbs in the past simple and translate them into
Czech. As a follow-up exercise, learners watch a video about a trip to New
York City, answer the comprehension question, and choose options a), b) or
c) in a quiz concerning the video.
Similarly to unit 4C, also unit 4D starts with a table showing the past
simple tense of irregular verbs. Again, learners study the table and focus on
the six sentences next to the table, using the six irregular verbs. In pairs,
they read the sentences and match them with the correct pictures. Then, they
listen to another set of sentences and complete the missing irregular verb in
the past. To reinforce the process of acquiring irregular verbs, learners are
provided with one more exercise in the form of a blog article. The task
is: "Listen and then read the blogs. Find all the verbs that are in the past
simple. Then, work in pairs. Ask and answer the questions" (Hrabetova et
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PRACTICAL PART
al., 2018, p. 81). Two other free speaking activities in pairs let learners
discuss their holiday experiences.
A revision section follows where learners read a blog article written in
the past simple tense and answer reading comprehension questions. Then,
there is one drill fill-in-the-blanks exercise where learners put given verbs in
the past simple tense and write them in the correct sentence. Finally,
learners are instructed to write blog articles about their holidays. They are
provided with a table containing detailed steps guiding them throughout the
writing process.
The fifth unit builds upon the previously mentioned grammatical
structures of the past simple tense from the previous lesson. Through free
speaking exercises, learners first review the use of the simple past tense of
the verb to be and regular and irregular verbs. Similar to the previous lesson,
each lesson starts with a table summarising the grammar concepts for that
lesson. In lesson 5B, the table provides an overview of how to form negative
sentences in the simple past tense using the auxiliary verb did. This is
followed by a controlled drill exercise in which learners are required to
rewrite positive sentences in the past tense into negative ones.
In section 5B, learners encounter a movie review that describes the
personal opinions of people who went to see the movie, learners first listen
to the review, then read it, and then in pairs, discuss whether the statements
about the movie are true. Unlike the previous lesson, which focused on
travel, learners now learn to talk about their favourite movies, actors, and
actresses.
In the following section, 5C, the formation of the simple past tense of
regular and irregular verbs is compared in the introductory table. In the
following exercise, learners are tasked with creating sentences about the
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PRACTICAL PART
lives of famous actors and actresses based on information about their lives.
This exercise again focuses on speaking, as learners are supposed to say the
sentences in groups of three without writing anything down. This does not
apply to the next controlled drill exercise, which contains eight sentences in
the simple past tense about a famous actor with a missing verb, whose
infinitive is given in parentheses. The task is to put the verb into the simple
past tense and complete the sentence by filling in the missing part. As one of
the few exercises, learners are required to rewrite this exercise in their
notebooks according to the instructions. In the remainder of section 5C,
learners watch two videos about famous actors and in a quiz exercise, they
choose the correct options about their lives.
The last part, 5D, focuses on forming past tense questions, including
yes/no questions and questions with wh- question words. After studying the
table at the beginning of the lesson, learners are tasked with matching past
tense questions with the correct answers, introducing a matching exercise
for the first time. The goal is to understand how question words combine
with the past tense. The same skill is then practised in the following
listening exercise, where actors and actresses answer a questionnaire about
their past, learners are asked to guess which famous personality is being
discussed based on their responses. This is followed by a free writing
exercise, where learners choose a favourite character and write several
sentences about their life. A group activity follows, where learners ask past
tense questions and try to guess which famous personality their classmates
have chosen. This speaking exercise focuses on using the grammatical
structure of the past simple tense in spoken discourse.
In the review section at the end of the fifth unit, a text written in the
simple past tense is once again presented, which the learners listen to, read,
and then decide in pairs whether the statements are true or false. This is
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followed by a guided drill exercise in which the task is to complete the
missing verbs in the simple past tense in the gaps in the text. Although the
learners do not have to create the past tense from the given verbs directly,
they need to understand the text and the verbs to fill in the verbs in the text
successfully. The review concludes with a writing exercise where learners
write biographies of their favourite famous personalities. The writing
process is guided by detailed instructions that show learners helpful
vocabulary and sentence constructions in the simple past tense that learners
could and should use.
In the next part of the seventh grade coursebook, before delving into
the past continuous tense, learners revisit the simple past tense, which they
have previously learned. In the first part of the second unit, through
listening and reading exercises, they review the formation of the past tense
for regular and irregular verbs and how to create questions and negations.
After introducing the past continuous tense, these two tenses are compared
in terms of usage.
Regarding the grammar exercises in the Bloggers coursebooks,
communicative exercises predominate over guided ones. Types of
communicative exercises that can be found in the coursebook for practising
the past simple tense include role-plays, describing pictures, creating stories
based on pictures, sharing personal experiences, and creating dialogues. The
coursebook often employs group work among learners, and many exercises
are designed for pairs or trios.
On the other hand, controlled exercises are less common and usually
follow tables summarising new grammar. These exercises serve to reinforce
the grammar structures that have been covered. Typically, they involve
rewriting sentences, gap fills, or matching exercises. However, it should be
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noted that the accompanying workbook contains exclusively guided
exercises to practise and reinforce newly covered grammar structures.
Concerning the language of instructions for each exercise, despite a
team writing the book of Czech and English-speaking authors, most
instructions are in English. In the coursebook, Czech instructions are not
found; they are instead more common in the accompanying workbook. This
is likely due to the internal differentiation of the coursebook and its
adaptation to learners with special educational needs. The language used in
the instructions is simple and understandable, with grammatically simple
sentences. The instructions are mainly in the form of commands, such as
look, read, listen, or speak.
In summary, the coursebooks in the Bloggers series provide sufficient
material and information for successfully acquiring the grammatical
structures of the simple past tense. Each lesson begins with a table
summarising the targeted grammatical structure, which learners first study
before moving on to exercises that utilise these structures. Based on the
exercises provided in the coursebook, the authors aim at developing
learners' ability to use the simple past tense effectively in spoken language,
with less emphasis placed on perfecting the formation of these grammatical
structures. Most exercises related to the past simple tense focus on
comprehension of spoken and written language and speaking skills. The
coursebooks contain minimal drill exercises, and there are more
independent than guided ones. However, it is essential to note that the
workbook, which is included in the Bloggers set, contains many guided drill
exercises, including numerous tables summarising grammatical structures.
What sets this coursebook apart from others is that it actively incorporates
translation into the Czech language. Some exercises in the workbook
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explicitly require learners to translate sentences into Czech, while in other
exercises, for example, past tense verbs are translated into Czech.
In most cases, the tables summarising grammar also include Czech
translations. This may be due to the fact that the authors have designed the
coursebooks for use by both more talented and weaker learners. Moreover,
the authors claim that their coursebooks are uniquely tailored to support
internal differentiation, which aids learners with special educational needs
and motivates faster learners with more challenging tasks.
3.5.4 Grammar Practice
This chapter analyses grammar practice employed by the coursebooks
mentioned above for practising grammar, specifically past simple tense.
Firstly, a grammar exercise is categorised as either controlled or free
practice. If the exercise is classified as controlled practice, it is further
specified as a mechanical, meaningful, or communicative drill. For this
analysis, the same units as in the previous chapter were selected, i.e., those
presenting the past simple tense. The number of controlled and free practice
exercises is presented in Table 2.
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Table 2
The number of controlled and free practice exercises in the selected
coursebooks
Type
practi
Contr
oiled
practi
(drills
Free
practi
Total
numb
Table 2 shows that Your Space 2 and Bloggers 2 contain more
controlled practice exercises focusing on the simple past tense than Project
2. However, this information is only partially relevant given that Your
Space 2 and Bloggers 2 cover the past simple tense in two units, and Project
2 covers the past simple tense in one unit.
Your
Spac
Projec Bloggers
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The proportion of controlled and free practice exercises in each
coursebook is much more relevant. As we can see from the table, Project 2
contains the highest proportion of controlled practice exercises at the
expense of free practice exercises. Of all the grammar practice exercises
focused on the past simple tense, 80% are controlled practice exercises, and
20% are free practice exercises. On the other hand, in Bloggers 2, there is
nearly 40% of free practice exercises, much more than the other two
coursebooks, and 60% of controlled practice exercises. Your Space 2
coursebook contains 74% controlled and 26% free practice exercises. The
most common controlled practice exercises include gap-filling, sentence
transformation, matching, multiple-choice, and cloze texts. The most
common free practice exercises include role plays, group discussions,
debates, presentations, and writing.
Table 3 presents the number of mechanical, meaningful, and
communicative drill exercises in the selected coursebooks.
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Table 3
The number of mechanical, meaningful, and communicative drill exercises
in the selected coursebooks
Your
Project Blogg
Space
ers 2
Media
nical
Meani
ngful
Comm
unicati
ve drill
Regarding the different types of controlled practice exercises (drills),
the mechanical, meaningful, and communicative drills ratio is similar in all
three coursebooks as shown in Table 3. Mechanical drills predominate in all
three coursebooks, accounting for approximately 50% of all controlled
practice exercises in the respective coursebooks. Meaningful drills account
for approximately 20% of all controlled practice exercises, and
communicative drills account for approximately 30%.
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3.5.5 Conclusion
This chapter uses the findings from previous chapters. It compares the
grammar syllabuses of the selected coursebook series, how past simple tense
is presented and taught in three selected coursebooks and analyses the
grammar practice in terms of controlled and free exercises. A l l three
coursebooks use a combination of inductive and deductive approaches to
teaching past simple tense.
The three series of coursebooks analysed in this thesis share notable
similarities in the sequencing of grammar structures. However, there are
also discernible differences in the emphasis and extent of coverage of
different grammar points. These differences can be seen in the inclusion or
exclusion of specific grammar points and the sequencing of these points
throughout the courses.
All three series introduce the present simple and continuous tenses
before the past tenses, with a focus on the affirmative, negative and question
forms. They also cover additional grammatical concepts such as possessive
pronouns, comparatives and superlatives, countable and uncountable nouns,
adverbs of frequency, and stative verbs in the present tenses.
However, there are also differences in sequencing and emphasis. Your
Space provides a comprehensive teaching of both present tenses, starting
with the present simple and gradually progressing to the present continuous.
In contrast, Project emphasises the difference between the tenses and their
usage in various situations. Bloggers introduces the present simple first and
then moves on to the present continuous, refining the learners'
understanding of both tenses as they progress through the book.
Regarding the past tenses, all three series introduce the past simple
tense after thorough exposure to present simple and present continuous
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PRACTICAL PART
tenses. However, the sequencing of past simple and past continuous tenses
differs among the three series. Bloggers and Project introduce the past
simple in their coursebooks for grade six and past continuous in
coursebooks for grade seven. Your Space introduces past simple in its
second coursebook for grade seven, contrasting it with the present tense.
Past continuous is then introduced in the third coursebook for grade eight.
Finally, all three coursebooks teach expressing the future using specific
grammar structures such as be going to, will and present continuous.
However, the sequencing and emphasis vary. Your Space introduces the
future at the end of the second coursebook (grade seven) for the first time,
presenting the present continuous for future arrangements, "may", "might",
"should" and "would like". In contrast, Project introduces the structure "be
going to" first and contrasts it with "will" for decisions. Bloggers teaches
the present continuous tense for talking about future arrangements first and
then introduces "be going to" and "will".
Concerning the methods and approaches, Your Space 2 takes a
communicative language learning approach to teach past simple tense,
presenting it in a series of contexts and real-life situations. The coursebook
includes exercises that focus on listening, reading, and speaking, allowing
learners to use past simple in communicative activities. Teaching past
simple in Your Space 2 is primarily inductive, with learners identifying past
tense verbs in reading and listening exercises before being introduced to the
grammatical form. However, there are also some deductive elements, such
as when the coursebook explicitly explains the grammar rule for forming
regular past tense verbs.
Project 2 also uses a combination of inductive and deductive
approaches. The teaching of past simple begins with a listening and reading
activity where learners identify past tense verbs, which is an example of an
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PRACTICAL PART
inductive approach. The coursebook then presents a chart of irregular past
tense verbs and explains the spelling patterns, which is an example of a
deductive approach. The coursebook also provides various exercises where
learners use past simple in context, which is an example of a task-based
learning approach. In addition, there are some other deductive elements,
such as when the coursebook explains the grammar rule for forming
negative statements in the past simple tense.
Bloggers 2 takes a more structured, explicit approach to teach past
simple, using a combination of deductive and inductive approaches. The
coursebook presents the rules for forming regular and irregular past tense
verbs clearly and concisely, which is an example of a deductive approach.
Then, learners are given opportunities to practice using past simple in
context through reading and writing exercises, which is an inductive
approach. However, there are also some inductive elements, such as when
the coursebook presents examples of past tense verbs in a text before asking
learners to identify them.
Regarding grammar practice, it can be assumed that there is a
connection between the proportion of controlled and free practice and the
methods used for grammar teaching. Inductive and deductive approaches
relate to the proportion of controlled and free practice exercises in the
coursebooks. Your Space 2 uses a communicative language learning
approach and has a higher proportion of free practice exercises while also
including inductive elements, such as learners identifying past tense verbs in
reading and listening exercises. Project 2 and Bloggers 2 use a combination
of inductive and deductive approaches and have a higher proportion of
controlled practice exercises.
All three coursebooks use a similar ratio of mechanical, meaningful,
and communicative drills in their controlled practice exercises. Mechanical
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PRACTICAL PART
drills are the most commonly used, followed by meaningful and
communicative drills, which suggests that the coursebooks may focus on the
accuracy of form and meaning before communicative competence.
In summary, the three coursebooks combine inductive and deductive
approaches to teaching past simple tense, with the inductive approach being
the prevailing one. By combining these approaches, the coursebooks
provide learners with opportunities to discover the grammar rules for
themselves, receive explicit explanations, and use past simple in
communicative and task-based activities.
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PRACTICAL PART
4 Conclusion
The thesis called Comparison of ELT coursebooks for lower secondary
schools in terms of teaching grammar intended to introduce the role of
grammar in ELT coursebooks and to analyse and compare three series of
coursebooks in terms of teaching grammar. The aim of the thesis was to
show how the coursebook series differ, what methods of presentation and
teaching of grammar are used in the coursebooks, whether controlled or free
grammar practice predominates, and if the grammatical syllabuses differ.
The ultimate goal was to discuss to what extent the differences might affect
the overall teaching and learning process.
The theoretical part, supported by valid and pertinent information
extracted from reference books and articles listed in the bibliography, firstly
presented the theoretical background of coursebooks, their types, role, use
and evaluation in ELT. Secondly, the theoretical part discussed grammar
and its role in foreign language teaching. It described the types of grammar,
its use and learners' difficulties with grammar. Thirdly, it focused on
various grammar methods, briefly describing their history and main
features, and discussed the main features, advantages and disadvantages of
the inductive, deductive and eclectic approach to teaching grammar. Lastly,
the theoretical part examined the theory of grammar practice with the focus
on the phases and aims of grammar practice.
The practical part called research first introduced a general description
of the selected coursebook series, i.e., Project, Your Space and Bloggers,
and analysed the grammar syllabuses of the coursebook series in terms of
sequencing and continuity of particular grammar structures and verb tenses.
The three series of coursebooks analysed in this thesis share
similarities in the sequencing of grammar structures, particularly in
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PRACTICAL PART
introducing present simple and continuous tenses before past tenses.
Additionally, all three coursebooks cover various grammatical concepts,
such as possessive pronouns, comparatives and superlatives, countable and
uncountable nouns, adverbs of frequency, and stative verbs in the present
tenses. However, there are discernible differences in the extent and
emphasis of coverage of different grammar points.
While Your Space provides a comprehensive teaching of both present
tenses, Project emphasizes the difference between the tenses and their usage
in various situations. Bloggers introduces the present simple first and then
moves on to the present continuous, refining learners' understanding of both
tenses as they progress through the book. The sequencing of past simple and
past continuous tenses also differs among the three series, with Bloggers
and Project introducing the past simple in their coursebooks for grade six
and past continuous in coursebooks for grade seven. In contrast, Your Space
introduces past simple in its second coursebook for grade seven, contrasting
it with the present tense, and past continuous is then introduced in the third
coursebook for grade eight.
Regarding expressing the future using specific grammar structures,
such as be going to, will, and present continuous, all three coursebooks
teach them, but with varying sequencing and emphasis. Project introduces
the structure be going to first and contrasts it with will for decisions, while
Bloggers teaches the present continuous tense for talking about future
arrangements first and then introduces be going to and will. Your Space
introduces the future at the end of the second coursebook for the first time,
presenting the present continuous for future arrangements, may, might,
should, and would like.
The similarities and differences in the sequencing and coverage of
grammar structures among the three series of coursebooks analysed in this
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PRACTICAL PART
thesis reveal different pedagogical approaches to teaching English grammar.
The comparison of grammar syllabuses provided valuable insights into the
design and content of these coursebooks, which could inform decisions
about their use in language teaching and learning.
In the following chapter, comparative methods were used to determine
the extent to which the coursebooks differ in terms of teaching grammar,
what methods of presentation and teaching of grammar are used in the
coursebooks, whether controlled or free grammar practice is dominant, and
to discuss to what extent these differences can affect the overall learning
process. The past simple tense was chosen to represent a verb tense
commonly included as a fundamental tense taught in lower secondary
schools. It can challenge learners transitioning from primary to lower
secondary school because it is usually an entirely new structure for learners.
Furthermore, the past simple tense is widely used in everyday
communication, underscoring its importance in English language education.
The result was an in-depth comparative analysis of these coursebooks'
presentation and practice of the simple past tense and the overall approach
to teaching grammar, and the results were discussed and interpreted in a
subsequent chapter in terms of the research question stated in the
introduction of the thesis.
The units from the selected coursebooks that were compared in the
previous chapters were taken as representative samples from all three
coursebook series. As publishers issue all coursebooks in a series as a
comprehensive set of interconnected coursebooks, it can be assumed that all
series coursebooks are built on the same foundations and principles.
Therefore, the results obtained in individual chapters of the thesis can be
applied to the entire series of coursebooks.
120
PRACTICAL PART
Firstly, it was shown that the Your Space series offers a
communicative approach to language learning, focusing on developing
learners' speaking and listening skills. The coursebooks include various
interactive activities that encourage learners to participate actively in the
learning process. The coursebooks also incorporate technology by providing
links to online resources and multimedia materials.
In terms of teaching grammar, Your Space takes an inductive approach
that allows learners to discover grammar rules through examples and
practice. The coursebooks use a combination of controlled and free
grammar practice to help learners internalise the grammar rules. The
grammatical syllabuses are presented clearly and concisely, and the
coursebooks provide ample opportunities for learners to practice grammar in
context.
One notable feature of Your Space is the emphasis on promoting
learner autonomy. The coursebooks include various learner training
activities that teach learners how to learn independently, set goals, and
evaluate their progress. The coursebooks also encourages learners to reflect
on their learning and take responsibility for their progress. Your Space is a
well-designed and effective ELT coursebook series that provides a solid
foundation for young learners to develop their language skills. With its
focus on communicative competence, learner autonomy, and the use of
technology, Your Space offers a modern and engaging approach to language
learning.
Secondly, Project coursebooks aim to provide a comprehensive
approach to teaching grammar, vocabulary, and language skills while also
fostering creativity, critical thinking, and communication skills.
121
PRACTICAL PART
Regarding teaching grammar, the Project coursebooks use various
methods to present and practice grammar structures, including inductive and
deductive approaches, controlled and free practice activities, and authentic
texts and situations. The grammatical syllabuses of the coursebooks cover a
wide range of structures, from basic to more complex, and are presented in a
clear and structured way that helps learners to understand and apply them.
Compared to other coursebooks, the Project series strongly emphasises
communicative activities encouraging learners to use the language in reallife
situations. The coursebooks also include regular opportunities for
learners to reflect on their learning and progress, as well as to self-assess
their language skills and set learning goals.
The Project coursebooks are a well-designed and comprehensive set of
materials that provide learners with a solid foundation in English language
skills and grammar while also developing their creativity, critical thinking,
and communication skills.
Finally, Bloggers series is structured around different themes and
topics, such as school, family, hobbies, and travel. Each coursebook unit
introduces new vocabulary and grammar structures related to the theme. The
series follows a communicative and task-based approach, emphasising the
development of the four language skills: listening, speaking, reading, and
writing.
In terms of teaching grammar, Bloggers coursebooks use a
combination of deductive and inductive methods. Grammar structures are
introduced through contextualised examples and illustrations, and learners
are encouraged to discover and analyse the rules themselves. The
coursebooks provide a variety of grammar activities, including controlled
122
PRACTICAL PART
practice exercises, such as gap-filling and matching, and free practice
exercises, such as role-plays and creative writing tasks.
Overall, the Bloggers coursebook series aims to provide learners with a
solid foundation in English language skills and prepare them for higherlevel
studies or real-life communication situations. The series is wellstructured,
engaging, and learner-centred, and it offers a wealth of resources
and activities to support teachers in delivering effective and enjoyable
lessons.
To conclude, the way that grammar is presented and taught can affect
the learner's understanding and ability to use grammar structures correctly.
Different approaches to teaching grammar, such as inductive or deductive,
can also impact how learners learn and internalize grammar rules. For
example, an inductive approach that focuses on discovering grammar rules
through examples and practice may be more effective for some learners. In
contrast, a deductive approach that presents grammar rules explicitly may
work better for others.
Additionally, the type and amount of grammar practice provided in
coursebooks can affect the learners' mastery of grammar structures. A
coursebook that provides ample opportunities for learners to practice
grammar in context and with a combination of controlled and free practice
activities can lead to better retention and use of the grammar structures in
real-life communication situations.
Choosing a well-designed and comprehensive coursebook that
incorporates effective approaches to teaching grammar can help learners to
become more motivated, engaged, and successful in their language learning.
The differences in ELT coursebooks in terms of grammar teaching and
presentation, grammar practice, grammar syllabuses, and approaches to
123
PRACTICAL PART
teaching grammar can significantly affect the overall learning process.
Therefore, coursebook designers and teachers need to consider these factors
when selecting and using coursebooks to ensure that they meet the needs of
their learners and promote effective language learning.
124
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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130
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Appendices
Appendix A
Grammar syllabuses of all the selected coursebooks
Your Space 1 Project 1 Bloggers 1
Be: positive
Question words
Imperative
A/an
Imperatives
Plurals
There is / are
Imperatives
Subject pronouns
Be: positive
Be: long and short
forms, affirmative,
negative and questions To be
Possessive
adjectives, regular Possessive adjectives: Wh- questions
plurals my, your, his, her, its, ^ ^ ^
our, their
Be: negatives, ^ A / an, the, plurals,
questions and short Possessive's there is / are
answers Yes / no and WhArticles
questions
Be: question words
There is, there are,
lots of
Irregular plurals
This, that, these,
those
Prepositions of place
Have got: affirmative,
negative, questions
Positions of adjectives
Have got - positive
Have got - negative,
questions
To be + adjectives
131
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Possessive adjectives
Have got: positives
Possessive's
Have got: questions,
negative, and short
answers
Possessive pronouns
and Whose...?
Present simple:
positive
Prepositions of time
Present simple:
negatives, questions
and short answers
Prepositions of time
Present simple:
affirmative, negative
and questions
Prepositions of place
There is / are ...
Can / can't
Present simple -
positive
Present simple -
negative
Present simple -
questions
Adverbs of frequency
Personal, possessive
pronouns
Possessive's
Prepositions of place
Objective pronouns
Have to, must, mustn't
Can: positive and
negative forms,
questions and short
answers
Adverbs of manner
Like / love / hate + -
ing
Imperative
Adverbs of
frequency
Question words and
Have got and be for
describing people
Present continuous:
affirmative, negative
and questions
Present continuous v.
present simple
How much is/are ...?
Project 2
Be
Present continuous -
positive
Present continuous negative,
questions
Can / can't
How much...?
Bloggers 2
There is / are
132
BIBLIOGRAPHY
present simple
Prepositions of time
Must: positive and
Countable and
uncountable nouns
A / an, some / any
How much ? How
many?
Lots of / not much /
many
Can
Questions
Have got
Present simple:
affirmative, negative
and questions
Ordinal numbers
Yes / no and Wh-
questions
Adverbs of frequency
To like
Present simple
revision
Present continuous -
revision
Present tenses
Need / need to
Adverbs of degree
And, but, because
Present continuous:
positive and negative
Present continuous:
questions and short
answers
Present continuous or
present simple?
Present continuous:
affirmative, negative
and questions
Present continuous v.
present simple
Must
Subject and object
pronouns
A few, a little, a lot of
How much / how
many / a lot of
Countable and
uncountable nouns
Some / any
Your Space 2 Past simple: be Comparative
Regular verbs Superlative
Irregular verbs
Questions and short
133
BIBLIOGRAPHY
answers
There is / there are
Must / mustn't
Have got - all forms
Adverbs offrequency
Countable and
uncountable nouns
A / an, some and any
How much / How
many?
Articles: a / an, some,
the
A little, a few
Present simple
Some / any
Countable /
uncountable
Too much / too many
Present continuous
Present simple /
present continuous
Can
Very / really / quite
Past simple be:
positive, negative,
questions and short
answers
Past simple regular
verbs: positive
Present continuous as
future
Have got
How questions
Comparative adjectives
Superlative adjectives
As ... as
Going to
Adjectives and adverbs
Have to
Making suggestions
Project 3
Past simple - to be
Past simple - regular
verbs, positive
Past simple - irregular
verbs, positive
Past simple - negative
Past simple - regular
verbs, irregular verbs,
positive
Past simple - questions
Bloggers 3
Past simple - was, were
Past simple - regular
verbs
134
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Prepositions of time
Present and past
Can / can't
Past simple be: all
forms
There was / there
were
Past simple: positive
- regular and
irregular verbs
Present simple
Present continuous
Past simple: negative
Could
Past simple:
questions, short
answers and question
words
Comparative
adjectives
As ... as / not as ...
as
Superlative
adjectives
Present continuous
for future
arrangements
Would like (to)
May / might
Past simple: be
Regular and irregular
verbs
Questions
Will for the future
Will for decisions
Going to for intentions
Past continuous:
affirmative, negative,
questions and short
answers
Past continuous and
Past simple - irregular
verbs
Past simple - negative,
questions
So do I. / Me too. / I
don't.
Expressing quantity
Comparison
Past simple - irregular
verbs
Abilities
Opinions
Past simple - irregular
verbs
Past continuous
Past simple v. past
continuous
Suggestions
Future plans
Accepting an idea, offer
Refusing and idea, offer
Dates
Should, shouldn't
Be going to
135
BIBLIOGRAPHY
May / might or
present continuous
Infinitive of purpose
Must
Have to
Should
Imperative
Your Space 3
past simple
The definite article the
The, a/an
Present perfect
Questions
Ever and never
Will, won't
Would like to, wouldn't
like to
Bloggers 4
Be going to
Will, won't
Will - use
Expressing the future
Numbers
More than / less than
(U) / fewer than (C)
As many ... as (C) / as
much ... as (U)
Past simple
Superlative
adjectives
I'd like to
Countable /
uncountable
Prepositions of time
Past continuous: all
forms
Adverbs of manner
Past continuous v.
past simple with
when
Articles: a / and the
Should / shouldn't
Must / mustn't, don't
have to
Project 4
Be going to: all Present tenses
f o r m s
Stative verbs
Be going to for w m / g o i n g t o
prediction
136
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Past simple and past
continuous
Used to
Too / enough
First conditional
Passive
Present perfect
Would rather / would
prefer
Prepositions of
movement
Will for predictions
First conditional
Present perfect:
regular verbs,
positive and negative
Never / ever
Present perfect:
irregular verbs,
questions and short
answers
Past simple
Past continuous
When / while
Must
Have to
Had to
Will for prediction
Definitely / probably
Might / might not
Will for offers,
Present perfect
Present perfect v. past
simple
Present perfect
For / since
Verb + -ing or
infinitive
There's someone /
something + -ing
Can see / hear
someone / something +
-ing
Passive voice: present
Passive voice: different
tenses
Will have to
Present perfect - still /
yet/ already
Present perfect - since /
for
If + past simple, would
+ infinitive
Expressing contrast
Be allowed to
Can and be allowed to /
must and have to
Bloggers 5
Relative pronouns
Should / might
Relative clauses
137
BIBLIOGRAPHY
promises and
decisions
Present continuous
for future and going
to
Present perfect
Ever / never
Present perfect with
for / since
Present perfect and
past simple
Present perfect with
just / already / yet
Indefinite pronouns
Too / too much / too
many / (not) enough
Your Space 4
Present continuous
Pronouns
Possessive adjectives
Past simple
Present perfect
Will for prediction
Zero conditional
First conditional
First conditional Future careers - choice
Future time clauses °f school
Project 5
Food and catering asking
about an
opinion, ordering a
meal
Present simple and
present continuous
Stative verbs
Plans for the weekend planning
an activity, at
the ticket office
Talking about the past:
past simple and past
continuous
Present perfect
Present perfect and
past simple
Articles
Public transport buying
an e-ticket,
buying a ticket
Talking about the
future: will for
predictions and
Accommodation online
booking, checkin
/check-out
138
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Relative pronouns
Reported speech:
statements
Say/tell
Reported speech:
modals, yes / no
questions
Second conditional:
statements, questions
and short answers
Second conditional:
wh- questions
If... were...
A little/a few
Present passive
Past passive
Question tags:
present simple
spontaneous decisions
Going to for plans and
intentions
Present continuous for
arrangements
First conditional
Time expressions
Airport - buying a
flight ticket, take a
plane
Would
Second conditional
So... that
Reflexive pronouns
Questions forms
Gerunds
Separating phrasal
verbs
Passive voice: present
simple, past simple,
present perfect, future
with will
Modal verbs with the
passive voice
Prepositions
Reported speech
Say/tell
139
BIBLIOGRAPHY
positive
Question words Indirect questions
Subject and object
questions
Used to I didn't use
to
General language
review
140
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Appendix B
An example ofgrammar presentation and practicefrom Bloggers 2
Island of Hope
Leaf n about Ellis island.
» 1
OVO; 21
Stud/the. table. What are the rules far making the past simple tense, of the verbs?
- may verbs + ~ed
Ö 2
Pas.1 Simple - regular verbs
1 EnFinMivf
1 P«t simple I InFiliilPW
Ipailsimplr 1
use used need needed
malt walked invite invited
arrive arrived viir VKIIed
look looked travel I'avelred
rain rained stop stopped
«|l « i » d cry cried
d , I * -*Cl - [ l l |
a consonant + y —
one syllable with a
— * stopped
work In groups of 3. Make a sentence chain.
Example.
DU trayj^dtp
Student A: Yesterday, I travelled to I
Student B" Yesterday, you travelledWJno and i visited my grandma,
Stodwit C: Yesterday, you travVHdtjBmci, you visited your grandma
and I used my brother's (
Read the leaflet about the island f t HO|> .. F.r.c all the w r t » In the past simple
and translate them Into C»ch.
Liberty b Ellis Island
The Statue 01 LCgHfrttaS
completed in 4jM*jBnly J K
y w j lat^wpand opened
as an nm r-.,, ion part r-' m ••. i
E r i M n Immigrants arrived in New
l'aVk.:4od across the ocean because they
ded hope and a new home. When they
at the statue, most of them cried with
joy. But first they walked through the golden door
0! Ellis island, lhe "island of Hope".
^bredec
^ ^ f c o k e d
^ Work In pairs. Ant the sentences true <1> or false (F)? Student Ai Read the sentence.
Student B: Say true orfalw. Correct the false sentences.
Q EH is island opened in igaa.
O f h e y travelled by ship.
Q The immigrants were sad when they arrived.
0 l-irst. they stopped at El lis island.
141
BIBLIOGRAPHY
4> Island of Hope
P a s t s i m p l e - r e g u l a r v e r b i
1111 in •: i v M i n u l ý i d * p r t i t ý
use poo žívat you used vy jste použili
walk procházet se you walked ty ses prose*
jájsem pfijei
ona se n t l M n
arrive přijet 1 arrived
ty ses prose*
jájsem pfijei
ona se n t l M nlook padivat se she looked
ty ses prose*
jájsem pfijei
ona se n t l M n
ran prtet it 'atn«d (ono) DT'. !•
cal zavoiat we called m y s I M s i i volán
need potřebovat 1 needed i a 'sem potreboval
invite pozvat they invited . • \ oni pozvali
Vrtit navštívit he vis ted on navštívil
travel cestovat she traveiua . ona cestovala
zastavit they s t t w i oni zastavili
CIV plakat | £ c n ^ « ? my jsme plakali
Mmuiý čas prostý pouiívárne k vyjádřeni L "'i
N s p r . ľ I needed mv umbrella i n theOhriing.
i se stal a skončil v určitou dobu v minulosti.
Stie visited New York
They arrived late
fork
ye • - L . j .
Ráno jsem potreboval deítnfk.
\ B T . - Lom navštívila New York.
Včera přijeli pozde..
U pravidelných sioves ^ n d á e koncovku -ed:
- look - looked, r. In jlned, need - needed
U jednoslflpičryAýSies (u nichž cosledni 3 písmena isou souhlásky + samohláska +
souhláska) a *Jofl^%nŕJcích na | a r zdvojíme poslední sounlásku
i t ů p - i d , travel - tráve •<.-.: {Br.), prefer - preferred
PokurJ^&yeso konči na -e, ored pripojením koncovky ho odstránime:
ise - JíŕĹl, arrive - arrived
jĚma&ě -y zmeníme n a -I, pokud ie před -y s OJ hl as ka:
cry - cried
ŕ ie před -y samohláska, pouze přidáme koncovku -ed,
play - played
Minuty í as prostý použijeme také ve vypravení, kdyí se několik akcí odehrálo v radé za sebou.
—-> I visited my grandma and then I stopped for an ice cream - Navštívil jsem babičku a pak
pern se stavil na zmrzlinu.
V angličtine krorné pravidelných sloves máme také slovesa nepravidelná. S nékterými z nich
se seznámíme v lekci 4D
Pravidla výstavností koncovky -ed se nachází na strane 44.
16 HIWy-aLií
142
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Appendix C
An example of grammar presentation and practicefrom Project 2
3B O u r h o l i d a y
1 a ffi 1 4J I Listen and repeat.
b ffi 1.451 listen. What is it?
J i surfcase
2 A
(JLLID Read and listen. Conor is talking about
his holiday. Tkk (/) the problem.
They missed their plane.
Someone p*t:ked up their bag.
They picked up someone else's suitcase.
Their luggage didn't amw?
b Which of the words from exercise 1 docs Conor
mention?
WvwFix-un holiday in July. We travelled In Spain by
plum- W'f landed A\ Uu-iiinmrt in Malaga. A man
checked our passimrts and (hen we wailed for our
UiKKSKf' Soon li and stiiirases start ctl to
arrive. Mum and Mad'* was first. Then my sister,
Clare, Aluniti'd: Tin/re's our suitcase!' We didn't
cheek the label. We jusl grabbed it and (hen fullnwed
Mum and I>ad with all of IMJI hJHEBRe ••>" J trulley,
When we arrived <1( ftur hotel, we slar1<fl 1« unpack.
Mom and Dad opened tin ir 1ME ;md Clare tried to
open our suitcase 'Is this the right key?" she asked.
T eart'l iqten il.'Then we looked at the name mi the
label. It wasn't our suitcase! Mum phoned the airport.
Our ban was slill there. There was a very art«ry rnan
there. 1oo. 1 Natl wasn't happy, Iweause we needed a
laxi lu takflhe ntlierpassenger* suiicasc back tn the
airport and collect M f suitcase.
3 3 Copy and complete the table with verbs from
the story.
Most verbv add -eri
Verbs ending in -e: add <i arrive
Verbs with a short vowel j grab
and one consonant; double
the consonant and add •ed
Vsrbs ending in -t. double travel
the -t and add -ed
Verbs ending in -y: remove
-y and add -i'ed
t r y
b ffft 1r46 ) Lrlten again. What do you notice
about the verbs?
I Iririied rtirted started shamed nwiled
•
C3
143
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ŕSB: erammjr. Píst simply: regular and irregular verbs
Write the past tense Of litr verbs. Say them.
open travel phone play l*e itop
[ close want collect practise
Write sentences about Conor's holiday. Use the
verb* in brackets in the past simple,
1 We f tennis, tplay)
VI* pttyed ferVMS.
I / to speak Spanish, (try)
It I on our last day train)
we IDVCK in our hotel room, (watch)
I / my friends at home (text)
We I to the beach, (walk!
We / Granada, (visit)
We i around Spain by bus. (travel)
rmd tin- rH'tjdtivL' s t n t v n t c in the
tent arid complete itW
r i t i n g a n d speakin
Yesterday the po-lire found a man's jatkot. rhtse
thangs were in the pockets. What did he- da
recently? What didn't he do? U » the veibs in the
p?rt simple to write Wh?t W P know about him,
;ii.-r.- be I ke chert clean pack, ccrflect stay
visit watch want travel change phone book
He played toWe femrs
ľhŕs ŕi rhe pwjii simple negative,
non do we jTíakť if? lUfwr part
tne verb do we use alter d\d
Pasť simple negative
We-checked the label. W> t h « lnh.l
.4 Make the luniĽncui negative.
1 We travelled by boat,
ive didh'r haver by boar.
2 We stayed in an apartment
3 Dad wanted to oo to the beach every day.
4 We played lennis every afternoon.
5 we visited a lot of musevjrrs.
6 It rained a lot.
7 We arrived in thp pvenmq
fl Clare packed the suitcase.
fr
SCREEN
t, CINEMA
ňDMlT 1
144
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Appendix D
An example ofgrammar presentation and practicefrom Your Space 2
And then we waitedp
k » i • ; •
-
prepositions or time •
and irregular verbs ^
Functions
taüäng about the past
Vocabulary • Airport
7.2S3 M a t c h t h e w o r d s wi1
res Then listen and check
1.56 6 0 7 . 2 8 3 Match the w o r u w i t h the pjctu
gate-n passport control • SSfattendant p
plane [JJ baggage reclaim | |
o n s
about the past
1;ten and check,
check-in p
runway | |
A n s w e r t h e questions. W h e r e d o y o u
• leave your luggage, • collect your luggage
Presentation
W a r m up L o o k at t h e pictures o n p a g e 51.
What do you think the email is about?
i 57 « 6 0 7 . 2 8 4 Listen a n d read t h e e m a i l . T h e n n u m b e r t h e p i c t u r e s i n order
R e a d Sam's e m a i l a g a i n a n d m a t c h t h e t i m e s w i t h t h e a c t i o n s .
a they went through passport control
b they found a hotel
c they had bad news
d they left the hotel
e they arrived at Heathrow Airport
f they arrived at Pisa Airport
R e a d Language focus. T h e n m a t c h t h e p a s t
s i m p l e w i t h t h e s e verbs.
eat ate cry g o stay have play
U n d e r l i n e t h e past s i m p l e f o r m s o f t h e s e
leave arrive see wait find listen
• I p l a y e d football with some
Italian boys.
• M y sister watched caitoo»
• W e s t a y e d in a cool hi '-'
- Ruby c r i e d .
• I ate ice cream.
• W e h a d a flight at 7.3C
• W e w e n t to Italy.
verbs in Sam's email.
C o m p l e t e t h e s e n t e n c e s a b o u t y e s t e r d a y f o r y o u
1 I went to school by bike yeslerday
2 I studied * 1 a t e
3 I watched 5 1
listened t o
6 1
went to bed at
BIBLIOGRAPHY
!
emailmm
of the week
My last summer holiday was fantastic.
There was only one problem - the journey
home!
We went to Italy three months ago (that's me, my mum
and dad, and my four-year-old sister Ruby). We stayed
in a CODL hotel near the sea. I went swimming every day
and played football with some Italian boys on the beach.
I also ate great pizzas and ice cream!
After two amazing weeks, i t was time to go home. We
left the hotel at 3 pm and went to Pisa Airport by coach.
The hotel was only 25 kilometres from the airport and
our flight was at 7 pra, so we had lots of time. But
there was a terrible traffic jam on the motorway
and we arrived at the airport at 6 pm!
We saw big queues at the check-in. There was
a problem with the computers! Fortunately,
our plane was Late. Its new departure time
was 9.15 pm.
We went through passport control at 8 pm.
And then we waited ... and waited. Ruby was
hungry and thirsty, and she cried a lot.
At 1G pm, we had bad news. Our flight was
cancelled.
We found a hotel near the airport at midnight. We had
a flight at 7.30 am. So the next morning we were very
tired. My sister Ruby cried again!
Ruby watched cartoons on the plane and I listened to r
mp3 player. We arrived at Heathrow Airport at 9 o'clock in
the morning! And then, guess what? Our suitcases weren't
at baggage reclaim. They were still in Italy!
By Sam
:ing about the past
" w o r k in g r o u p s . Say w h a t y o u d i d o n Saturday. Use the verbs t o
"hatched played went on the internet listened |
help y o u .
| did visitid saw"
i Saturday. A n d I visited my grandparents
A I d i d my homework on £
B I went on the internet. fH«nrfR
C M e tooJ A n d I played football in the park with my fnends.
Unit i The Dast
146
iguage space
Past simple - regular verbs
^607.266 Read a n d complete
Jasmine's diary with t h e correct
f o r m of t h e verb in brackets.
I / you / he / she /
it / we / they
listened
m
1 1
- - — (text)
m y - f r t e ^ v t Je+iKW.
A m e r i c a . UfcsfcercUuj.
W e 2
(visit) the.
S c i e n c e M u s e u m .
C o o l !
W e 3
( w a t c h ) a. b o r i n g - f i l m
UjLst n i g h t , (í)
M y $ i # t e r JessiAtf*
(arrive)
Lette f o r w o r k t o d A y .
J e s s i c a .
9
(decide)
t o g e t u p
e-ckHy t h i s m o r n i n g ! £*;
i a
(practise) t h e piAnO
i n t h e - m o r n i n g .
D a v u t a n d . I
7
(walk)
•for t h r e e h o u r s i n t h e
cownfcrysufle. Very tirLrig!
M y doA. a
a. r o a s t d i n n e r .
Listen a n d repeat.
M
invite
very-
visit
verb
love
b W r i t e a n d say t w o more words
w i t h each sound l\l a n d /w/.
Pastsimple-, r r p 1
'1 T b s
, 59 » 6 0 7 . 2 8 8 M a t c h t h e verbs
, . . . „ „ r f forms. T h e n listen anrl
, 5 9 . 607.288 m a n . . . u , e verbs W l l .
t h e i r past forms. T h e n listen a n d ^
rode
gave k n
wrote won
did
C o m p l e t e t h e sentences with theve
f r o m Exercise 2.
1 Marek wrote, a n email to his Amen;
friend Josh last night.
2 Our dad ... a terrible hat to tt,
school open day.
3 Omar and Khaled on an
elephant at the safari park.
4 M u m me a new bike.
I love it.
5 Poor Sophie! She her mobi
phone in the shopping centre.
6 Jo a prize in the art rant;
1.60 607.289
correct w o r d s .
Listen andtcircleMl»
Jamie's d a y
1 get up aCjTFarfl) b 7.45 am
2 have a cereal b toast
breakfast and jam
3 leave home a 8.15 am b 8.45 ŕ-
4 eat a chicken b sancV
5 lose a keys b mobil
send
phon
6 send a text b emai
-7
read
messages
V
/ read a book b com'
V 8 go to bed a 10.20 pm b 10.31
W r i t e
s e n t e n c e s a b o u t Jamie
Q m i e
9 0 t U
P at quarter past sever
147